  
  [1X2. Residue-Class-Wise Affine Mappings[0X
  
  In  this  chapter  we  give the basic definitions, and describe how to enter
  residue-class-wise affine mappings and how to compute with them.
  
  How  to compute with residue-class-wise affine groups is described in detail
  in  the  next  chapter. The reader is encouraged to look there already after
  having  read the first few pages of this chapter, and to look up definitions
  as he needs to.
  
  
  [1X2.1 Basic definitions[0X
  
  Residue-class-wise  affine groups, or [13Xrcwa[0X groups for short, are permutation
  groups whose elements are bijective residue-class-wise affine mappings.
  
  A  mapping  f:  Z  -> Z is called [13Xresidue-class-wise affine[0X, or for short an
  [13Xrcwa[0X  mapping,  if  there is a positive integer m such that the restrictions
  of f to the residue classes r(m) in Z/mZ are all affine, i.e. given by
  
  
                                          a_r(m) * n + b_r(m)
             f|_r(m):  r(m) -> Z,  n |->  -------------------
                                                c_r(m)
  for  certain coefficients a_r(m), b_r(m), c_r(m) in Z depending on r(m). The
  smallest  possible  m  is called the [13Xmodulus[0X of f. It is understood that all
  fractions are reduced, i.e. that gcd( a_r(m), b_r(m), c_r(m) ) = 1, and that
  c_r(m)  >  0.  The  lcm  of the coefficients a_r(m) is called the [13Xmultiplier[0X
  of f, and the lcm of the coefficients c_r(m) is called the [13Xdivisor[0X of f.
  
  It  is  easy  to see that the residue-class-wise affine mappings of Z form a
  monoid   under   composition,   and   that   the  residue-class-wise  affine
  permutations  of Z form a countable subgroup of Sym(Z). We denote the former
  by Rcwa(Z), and the latter by RCWA(Z).
  
  An  rcwa  mapping  is  called  [13Xtame[0X  if  the  set of moduli of its powers is
  bounded,  or equivalently if it permutes a partition of Z into finitely many
  residue  classes  on all of which it is affine. An rcwa group is called [13Xtame[0X
  if there is a common such partition for all of its elements, or equivalently
  if  the  set of moduli of its elements is bounded. Rcwa mappings and -groups
  which  are  not  tame  are  called  [13Xwild[0X. Tame rcwa mappings and -groups are
  something  which  one  could  call  the  "trivial  cases" or "basic building
  blocks", while wild rcwa groups are the objects of primary interest.
  
  The  definitions  of  residue-class-wise  affine mappings and -groups can be
  generalized  in an obvious way to suitable rings other than Z. In fact, this
  package provides also some support for residue-class-wise affine groups over
  semilocalizations  of Z  and  over  univariate  polynomial rings over finite
  fields. The former of these rings have been chosen as examples of rings with
  only finitely prime elements, and the latter have been chosen as examples of
  rings with nonzero characteristic.
  
  
  [1X2.2 Entering residue-class-wise affine mappings[0X
  
  Entering  an  rcwa  mapping  of Z  requires  giving  the  modulus m  and the
  coefficients  a_r(m),  b_r(m)  and c_r(m)  for r(m) running over the residue
  classes (mod m).
  
  This can be done easiest by [10XRcwaMapping( [3Xcoeffs[0X )[0X, where [3Xcoeffs[0X is a list of
  m coefficient triples [10Xcoeffs[[0Xr+1[10X] = [[0Xa_r(m), b_r(m), c_r(m)[10X][0X, with r running
  from 0 to m-1.
  
  If  some  coefficient c_r(m) is zero or if images of some integers under the
  mapping to be defined would not be integers, an error message is printed and
  a  break loop is entered. For example, the coefficient triple [10X[1,4,3][0X is not
  allowed  at the first position. The reason for this is that not all integers
  congruent to 1 * 0 + 4 = 4 mod m are divisible by 3.
  
  For the general constructor for rcwa mappings, see [2XRcwaMapping[0X ([14X2.2-5[0X).
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> T := RcwaMapping([[1,0,2],[3,1,2]]); # The Collatz mapping.[0X
    [4X<rcwa mapping of Z with modulus 2>[0X
    [4Xgap> [ IsSurjective(T), IsInjective(T) ];[0X
    [4X[ true, false ][0X
    [4Xgap> SetName(T,"T"); Display(T);[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4XSurjective rcwa mapping of Z with modulus 2[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4X              n mod 2               |                n^T[0X
    [4X------------------------------------+------------------------------------[0X
    [4X  0                                 | n/2[0X
    [4X  1                                 | (3n + 1)/2[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> a := RcwaMapping([[2,0,3],[4,-1,3],[4,1,3]]); SetName(a,"a");[0X
    [4X<rcwa mapping of Z with modulus 3>[0X
    [4Xgap> IsBijective(a);[0X
    [4Xtrue[0X
    [4Xgap> Display(a); # This is Collatz' permutation:[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4XBijective rcwa mapping of Z with modulus 3[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4X              n mod 3               |                n^a[0X
    [4X------------------------------------+------------------------------------[0X
    [4X  0                                 | 2n/3[0X
    [4X  1                                 | (4n - 1)/3[0X
    [4X  2                                 | (4n + 1)/3[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> Support(a);[0X
    [4XZ \ [ -1, 0, 1 ][0X
    [4Xgap> Cycle(a,44);[0X
    [4X[ 44, 59, 79, 105, 70, 93, 62, 83, 111, 74, 99, 66 ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  There    is   computational   evidence   for   the   conjecture   that   any
  residue-class-wise  affine  permutation of Z can be factored into members of
  the  following three series of permutations of particularly simple structure
  (cf. [2XFactorizationIntoCSCRCT[0X ([14X2.5-1[0X)):
  
  [1X2.2-1 ClassShift[0X
  
  [2X> ClassShift( [0X[3Xr, m[0X[2X ) _______________________________________________[0Xfunction
  [2X> ClassShift( [0X[3Xcl[0X[2X ) _________________________________________________[0Xfunction
  [6XReturns:[0X  The class shift nu_r(m).
  
  The [13Xclass shift[0X nu_r(m) is the rcwa mapping of Z which maps n in r(m) to n +
  m and which fixes Z \ r(m) pointwise.
  
  In the one-argument form, the argument [3Xcl[0X stands for the residue class r(m).
  Enclosing the argument list in list brackets is permitted.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> Display(ClassShift(5,12));[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4XTame bijective rcwa mapping of Z with modulus 12, of order infinity[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4X              n mod 12              |         n^ClassShift(5,12)[0X
    [4X------------------------------------+------------------------------------[0X
    [4X   0  1  2  3  4  6  7  8  9 10 11  | n[0X
    [4X   5                                | n + 12[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  [1X2.2-2 ClassReflection[0X
  
  [2X> ClassReflection( [0X[3Xr, m[0X[2X ) __________________________________________[0Xfunction
  [2X> ClassReflection( [0X[3Xcl[0X[2X ) ____________________________________________[0Xfunction
  [6XReturns:[0X  The class reflection varsigma_r(m).
  
  The  [13Xclass reflection[0X varsigma_r(m) is the rcwa mapping of Z which maps n in
  r(m)  to  -n + 2r and which fixes Z \ r(m) pointwise, where it is understood
  that 0 <= r < m.
  
  In the one-argument form, the argument [3Xcl[0X stands for the residue class r(m).
  Enclosing the argument list in list brackets is permitted.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> Display(ClassReflection(5,9));[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4XBijective rcwa mapping of Z with modulus 9, of order 2[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4X              n mod 9               |       n^ClassReflection(5,9)[0X
    [4X------------------------------------+------------------------------------[0X
    [4X  0 1 2 3 4 6 7 8                   | n[0X
    [4X  5                                 | -n + 10[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  [1X2.2-3 ClassTransposition[0X
  
  [2X> ClassTransposition( [0X[3Xr1, m1, r2, m2[0X[2X ) _____________________________[0Xfunction
  [2X> ClassTransposition( [0X[3Xcl1, cl2[0X[2X ) ___________________________________[0Xfunction
  [6XReturns:[0X  The class transposition tau_r_1(m_1),r_2(m_2).
  
  Given  two  disjoint  residue classes r_1(m_1) and r_2(m_2) of the integers,
  the  [13Xclass  transposition[0X tau_r_1(m_1),r_2(m_2) in RCWA(Z) is defined as the
  involution  which  interchanges  r_1+km_1 and r_2+km_2 for any integer k and
  which  fixes  all  other  points.  It  is  understood  that  m_1 and m_2 are
  positive,  that  0  <=  r_1 < m_1 and that 0 <= r_2 < m_2. For a [13Xgeneralized
  class transposition[0X, the latter assumptions are not made.
  
  The  class  transposition  tau_r_1(m_1),r_2(m_2)  interchanges  the  residue
  classes  r_1(m_1)  and  r_2(m_2)  and  fixes  the  complement of their union
  pointwise.
  
  In  the  four-argument  form, the arguments [3Xr1[0X, [3Xm1[0X, [3Xr2[0X and [3Xm2[0X stand for r_1,
  m_1,  r_2 and m_2, respectively. In the two-argument form, the arguments [3Xcl1[0X
  and [3Xcl2[0X  stand  for the residue classes r_1(m_1) and r_2(m_2), respectively.
  Enclosing  the  argument  list  in  list  brackets is permitted. The residue
  classes r_1(m_1) and r_2(m_2) are stored as an attribute [10XTransposedClasses[0X.
  
  A  class  transposition can be written as a product of any given number k of
  class   transpositions.   Such   a   decomposition   can   be   obtained  by
  [10XSplittedClassTransposition([3Xct[0X,[3Xk[0X)[0X.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> Display(ClassTransposition(1,2,8,10));[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4XBijective rcwa mapping of Z with modulus 10, of order 2[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4X              n mod 10              |   n^ClassTransposition(1,2,8,10)[0X
    [4X------------------------------------+------------------------------------[0X
    [4X   0  2  4  6                       | n[0X
    [4X   1  3  5  7  9                    | 5n + 3[0X
    [4X   8                                | (n - 3)/5[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  The  set  of  all class transpositions of the ring of integers generates the
  simple  group CT(Z) mentioned in Chapter [14X1.[0X. This group has a representation
  as  a  [5XGAP[0X  object  --  see [2XCT[0X  ([14X3.1-2[0X).  The  set  of all generalized class
  transpositions of Z generates a simple group as well, cf. [Koh06a].
  
  Class  shifts,  class  reflections and class transpositions of rings R other
  than Z are defined in an entirely analogous way -- all one needs to do is to
  replace  Z  by R  and  to  read  <  and <= in the sense of the ordering used
  by [5XGAP[0X.  They  can  also  be  entered  basically  as described above -- just
  prepend  the  desired  ring R  to  the  argument list. Often also a sensible
  "default  ring"  (->  [10XDefaultRing[0X  in the [5XGAP[0X Reference Manual) is chosen if
  that optional first argument is omitted.
  
  On  rings  which  have more than two units, there is another basic series of
  rcwa permutations which generalizes class reflections:
  
  [1X2.2-4 ClassRotation[0X
  
  [2X> ClassRotation( [0X[3Xr, m, u[0X[2X ) _________________________________________[0Xfunction
  [2X> ClassRotation( [0X[3Xcl, u[0X[2X ) ___________________________________________[0Xfunction
  [6XReturns:[0X  The class rotation rho_r(m),u.
  
  Given  a  residue  class  r(m)  and a unit u of a suitable ring R, the [13Xclass
  rotation[0X  rho_r(m),u is the rcwa mapping which maps n in r(m) to un + (1-u)r
  and  which  fixes  R  \  r(m)  pointwise.  Class  rotations generalize class
  reflections, as we have rho_r(m),-1 = varsigma_r(m).
  
  In the two-argument form, the argument [3Xcl[0X stands for the residue class r(m).
  Enclosing the argument list in list brackets is permitted. The argument [3Xu[0X is
  stored as an attribute [10XRotationFactor[0X.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> Display(ClassRotation(ResidueClass(Z_pi(2),2,1),1/3));[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4XTame bijective rcwa mapping of Z_( 2 ) with modulus 2, of order infinity[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4X              n mod 2               |      n^ClassRotation(1,2,1/3)[0X
    [4X------------------------------------+------------------------------------[0X
    [4X  0                                 | n[0X
    [4X  1                                 | 1/3 n + 2/3[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> x := Indeterminate(GF(8),1);; SetName(x,"x");[0X
    [4Xgap> R := PolynomialRing(GF(8),1);;[0X
    [4Xgap> Display(ClassRotation(1,x,Z(8)*One(R)));[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4XBijective rcwa mapping of GF(2^3)[x] with modulus x, of order 7[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4X        P mod x         |       P^(ClassRotation(Z(2)^0,x,Z(2^3)))[0X
    [4X------------------------+------------------------------------------------[0X
    [4X 0*Z(2)   Z(2^3)        |[0X
    [4X Z(2^3)^2 Z(2^3)^3      |[0X
    [4X Z(2^3)^4 Z(2^3)^5      |[0X
    [4X Z(2^3)^6               | P[0X
    [4X Z(2)^0                 | Z(2^3)*P + Z(2^3)^3[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  There   are  properties  [10XIsClassShift[0X,  [10XIsClassReflection[0X,  [10XIsClassRotation[0X,
  [10XIsClassTransposition[0X  and  [10XIsGeneralizedClassTransposition[0X,  which  indicate
  whether  a  given  rcwa  mapping  belongs  to  the  corresponding series. By
  default,  class  shifts,  class  reflections, class transpositions and class
  rotations are given descriptive names of the form [10XClass...(...)[0X. They can be
  given user-defined names upon creation via the option [10XName[0X. Setting the [10XName[0X
  attribute can be avoided by passing the empty string.
  
  In  the  sequel,  a  description of the general-purpose constructor for rcwa
  mappings  is  given.  This might look a bit technical on a first glance, but
  knowing  all  possible  ways  of  entering  an  rcwa  mapping is by no means
  necessary for understanding this manual or for using this package.
  
  
  [1X2.2-5 RcwaMapping (the general constructor)[0X
  
  [2X> RcwaMapping( [0X[3XR, m, coeffs[0X[2X ) ________________________________________[0Xmethod
  [2X> RcwaMapping( [0X[3XR, coeffs[0X[2X ) ___________________________________________[0Xmethod
  [2X> RcwaMapping( [0X[3Xcoeffs[0X[2X ) ______________________________________________[0Xmethod
  [2X> RcwaMapping( [0X[3Xperm, range[0X[2X ) _________________________________________[0Xmethod
  [2X> RcwaMapping( [0X[3Xm, values[0X[2X ) ___________________________________________[0Xmethod
  [2X> RcwaMapping( [0X[3Xpi, coeffs[0X[2X ) __________________________________________[0Xmethod
  [2X> RcwaMapping( [0X[3Xq, m, coeffs[0X[2X ) ________________________________________[0Xmethod
  [2X> RcwaMapping( [0X[3XP1, P2[0X[2X ) ______________________________________________[0Xmethod
  [2X> RcwaMapping( [0X[3Xcycles[0X[2X ) ______________________________________________[0Xmethod
  [6XReturns:[0X  An rcwa mapping.
  
  In  all  cases  the  argument [3XR[0X is the underlying ring, [3Xm[0X is the modulus and
  [3Xcoeffs[0X  is the coefficient list. A coefficient list for an rcwa mapping with
  modulus  m  consists of |R/mR| coefficient triples [10X[[0Xa_r(m), b_r(m), c_r(m)[10X][0X.
  Their  ordering  is determined by the ordering of the representatives of the
  residue classes (mod m) in the sorted list returned by [10XAllResidues([3XR[0X, [3Xm[0X)[0X. In
  case R = Z this means that the coefficient triple for the residue class 0(m)
  comes first and is followed by the one for 1(m), the one for 2(m) and so on.
  
  In  case  one  or  several  of  the arguments [3XR[0X, [3Xm[0X and [3Xcoeffs[0X are omitted or
  replaced  by  other arguments, the former are either derived from the latter
  or  default  values are taken. The meaning of the other arguments is defined
  in  the  detailed description of the particular methods given in the sequel:
  The above methods return the rcwa mapping
  
  [8X(a)[0X
        of [3XR[0X with modulus [3Xm[0X and coefficients [3Xcoeffs[0X,
  
  [8X(b)[0X
        of  [3XR[0X  =  Z or [3XR[0X = Z_(pi) with modulus [10XLength([3Xcoeffs[0X)[0X and coefficients
        [3Xcoeffs[0X,
  
  [8X(c)[0X
        of [3XR[0X = Z with modulus [10XLength([3Xcoeffs[0X)[0X and coefficients [3Xcoeffs[0X,
  
  [8X(d)[0X
        of  [3XR[0X  = Z, permuting any set [10X[3Xrange[0X+k*Length([3Xrange[0X)[0X like [3Xperm[0X permutes
        [3Xrange[0X,
  
  [8X(e)[0X
        of  [3XR[0X  =  Z  with  modulus [3Xm[0X and values given by a list [3Xval[0X of 2 pairs
        [10X[[0Xpreimage[10X, [0Ximage[10X][0X per residue class (mod [3Xm[0X),
  
  [8X(f)[0X
        of [3XR[0X = Z_(pi) with modulus [10XLength([3Xcoeffs[0X)[0X and coefficients [3Xcoeffs[0X (the
        set  of  primes  pi  which  denotes  the  underlying ring is passed as
        argument [3Xpi[0X),
  
  [8X(g)[0X
        of [3XR[0X = GF([3Xq[0X)[[3Xx[0X] with modulus [3Xm[0X and coefficients [3Xcoeffs[0X,
  
  [8X(h)[0X
        a  bijective  rcwa  mapping  which  induces  a  bijection  between the
        partitions  [3XP1[0X and [3XP2[0X of [3XR[0X into residue classes and which is affine on
        the elements of [3XP1[0X, or
  
  [8X(i)[0X
        a  bijective  rcwa mapping with "residue class cycles" given by a list
        [3Xcycles[0X  of  lists of pairwise disjoint residue classes which are to be
        permuted cyclically, each, respectively.
  
  The  methods  for  the  operation  [10XRcwaMapping[0X  perform a number of argument
  checks, which can be skipped by using [10XRcwaMappingNC[0X instead.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> R := PolynomialRing(GF(2),1);; x := X(GF(2),1);; SetName(x,"x");[0X
    [4Xgap> RcwaMapping(R,x+1,[[1,0,x+One(R)],[x+One(R),0,1]]*One(R));     # (a)[0X
    [4X<rcwa mapping of GF(2)[x] with modulus x+Z(2)^0>[0X
    [4Xgap> RcwaMapping(Z_pi(2),[[1/3,0,1]]);                              # (b)[0X
    [4XRcwa mapping of Z_( 2 ): n -> 1/3 n[0X
    [4Xgap> a := RcwaMapping([[2,0,3],[4,-1,3],[4,1,3]]);                  # (c)[0X
    [4X<rcwa mapping of Z with modulus 3>[0X
    [4Xgap> RcwaMapping((1,2,3),[1..4]);                                   # (d)[0X
    [4X<bijective rcwa mapping of Z with modulus 4, of order 3>[0X
    [4Xgap> T = RcwaMapping(2,[[1,2],[2,1],[3,5],[4,2]]);                  # (e)[0X
    [4Xtrue[0X
    [4Xgap> RcwaMapping([2],[[1/3,0,1]]);                                  # (f)[0X
    [4XRcwa mapping of Z_( 2 ): n -> 1/3 n[0X
    [4Xgap> RcwaMapping(2,x+1,[[1,0,x+One(R)],[x+One(R),0,1]]*One(R));     # (g)[0X
    [4X<rcwa mapping of GF(2)[x] with modulus x+Z(2)^0>[0X
    [4Xgap> a = RcwaMapping(List([[0,3],[1,3],[2,3]],ResidueClass),[0X
    [4X>                    List([[0,2],[1,4],[3,4]],ResidueClass));       # (h)[0X
    [4Xtrue[0X
    [4Xgap> RcwaMapping([List([[0,2],[1,4],[3,8],[7,16]],ResidueClass)]);  # (i)[0X
    [4X<bijective rcwa mapping of Z with modulus 16, of order 4>[0X
    [4Xgap> Cycle(last,ResidueClass(0,2));[0X
    [4X[ 0(2), 1(4), 3(8), 7(16) ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  Rcwa   mappings   of  Z  can  be  "translated"  to  rcwa  mappings  of  some
  semilocalization Z_(pi) of Z:
  
  [1X2.2-6 LocalizedRcwaMapping[0X
  
  [2X> LocalizedRcwaMapping( [0X[3Xf, p[0X[2X ) _____________________________________[0Xfunction
  [2X> SemilocalizedRcwaMapping( [0X[3Xf, pi[0X[2X ) ________________________________[0Xfunction
  [6XReturns:[0X  The  rcwa  mapping  of  Z_(p)  respectively  Z_(pi)  with the same
            coefficients as the rcwa mapping [3Xf[0X of Z.
  
  The  argument  [3Xp[0X or [3Xpi[0X must be a prime or a set of primes, respectively. The
  argument [3Xf[0X  must  be  an rcwa mapping of Z whose modulus is a power of [3Xp[0X, or
  whose modulus has only prime divisors which lie in [3Xpi[0X, respectively.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> T := RcwaMapping([[1,0,2],[3,1,2]]);; # The Collatz mapping.[0X
    [4Xgap> Cycle(LocalizedRcwaMapping(T,2),131/13);[0X
    [4X[ 131/13, 203/13, 311/13, 473/13, 716/13, 358/13, 179/13, 275/13, [0X
    [4X  419/13, 635/13, 959/13, 1445/13, 2174/13, 1087/13, 1637/13, 2462/13, [0X
    [4X  1231/13, 1853/13, 2786/13, 1393/13, 2096/13, 1048/13, 524/13, 262/13 ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  Rcwa mappings can be [10XView[0Xed, [10XDisplay[0Xed, [10XPrint[0Xed and written to a [10XString[0X. The
  output  of  the  [10XView[0X method is kept reasonably short. In most cases it does
  not  describe  an  rcwa  mapping  completely.  In  these cases the output is
  enclosed  in  brackets.  The  output  of  the  methods for [10XDisplay[0X and [10XPrint[0X
  describe  an  rcwa  mapping  in  full. The [10XPrint[0Xed representation of an rcwa
  mapping  is  [5XGAP[0X - readable if and only if the [10XPrint[0Xed representation of the
  elements of the underlying ring is so.
  
  There  is also a method for [10XLaTeX[0X, respectively [10XLaTeXObj[0X. The output of this
  method  makes  use  of  the  LaTeX  macro  package  [5Xamsmath[0X.  If  the option
  [3XFactorization[0X  is  set  and  the argument is bijective, a factorization into
  class  shifts, class reflections, class transpositions and prime switches is
  printed  (cf.  [2XFactorizationIntoCSCRCT[0X  ([14X2.5-1[0X)).  For  rcwa  mappings  with
  modulus  greater  than 1,  an  indentation  by [3XIndentation[0X characters can be
  obtained by setting this option value accor\-dingly.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> Print(LaTeXObj(T));[0X
    [4Xn \ \longmapsto \[0X
    [4X\begin{cases}[0X
    [4X  n/2        & \text{if} \ n \in 0(2), \\[0X
    [4X  (3n + 1)/2 & \text{if} \ n \in 1(2).[0X
    [4X\end{cases}[0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  There is an operation [10XLaTeXAndXDVI[0X which displays an rcwa mapping in an [5Xxdvi[0X
  window.  This works as follows: The string returned by the [10XLaTeXObj[0X - method
  described  above  is  inserted  into  a  LaTeX  template  file. This file is
  LaTeX'ed,  and  the  result  is shown with [5Xxdvi[0X. Calling [10XDisplay[0X with option
  [3Xxdvi[0X  has  the  same effect. The operation [10XLaTeXAndXDVI[0X is only available on
  UNIX systems, and requires suitable installations of LaTeX and [5Xxdvi[0X.
  
  
  [1X2.3 Basic arithmetic for residue-class-wise affine mappings[0X
  
  Testing rcwa mappings for equality requires only comparing their coefficient
  lists,  hence  is  cheap.  Rcwa  mappings can be multiplied, thus there is a
  method  for [10X*[0X. Bijective rcwa mappings can also be inverted, thus there is a
  method  for  [10XInverse[0X.  The  latter  method  is usually accessed by raising a
  mapping  to  a  power  with  negative  exponent.  Multiplying, inverting and
  computing  powers  of  tame rcwa mappings is cheap. Computing powers of wild
  mappings  is  usually  expensive -- runtime and memory requirements normally
  grow   approximately   exponentially   with   the  exponent.  How  expensive
  multiplying a couple of wild mappings is, varies very much. In any case, the
  amount of memory required for storing an rcwa mapping is proportional to its
  modulus.  Whether  a  given mapping is tame or wild can be determined by the
  operation  [10XIsTame[0X. There is a method for [10XOrder[0X, which can not only compute a
  finite order, but which can also detect infinite order.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> T := RcwaMapping([[1,0,2],[3,1,2]]);;          # The Collatz mapping.[0X
    [4Xgap> a := RcwaMapping([[2,0,3],[4,-1,3],[4,1,3]]);; # Collatz' permutation.[0X
    [4Xgap> List([-4..4],k->Modulus(a^k));[0X
    [4X[ 256, 64, 16, 4, 1, 3, 9, 27, 81 ][0X
    [4Xgap> IsTame(T) or IsTame(a);[0X
    [4Xfalse[0X
    [4Xgap> IsTame(ClassShift(0,1)) and IsTame(ClassTransposition(0,2,1,2));[0X
    [4Xtrue[0X
    [4Xgap> T^2*a*T*a^-3;[0X
    [4X<rcwa mapping of Z with modulus 768>[0X
    [4Xgap> (ClassShift(1,3)*ClassReflection(2,7))^1000000;[0X
    [4X<bijective rcwa mapping of Z with modulus 21>[0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  There  are  methods installed for [10XIsInjective[0X, [10XIsSurjective[0X, [10XIsBijective[0X and
  [10XImage[0X.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> [ IsInjective(T), IsSurjective(T), IsBijective(a) ];[0X
    [4X[ false, true, true ][0X
    [4Xgap> Image(RcwaMapping([[2,0,1]]));[0X
    [4X0(2)[0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  Images  of  elements,  of  finite sets of elements and of unions of finitely
  many  residue  classes of the source of an rcwa mapping can be computed with
  [10X^[0X,  the  same  symbol  as  used for exponentiation and conjugation. The same
  works for partitions of the source into a finite number of residue classes.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> 15^T;[0X
    [4X23[0X
    [4Xgap> ResidueClass(1,2)^T;[0X
    [4X2(3)[0X
    [4Xgap> List([[0,3],[1,3],[2,3]],ResidueClass)^a;[0X
    [4X[ 0(2), 1(4), 3(4) ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  For  computing  preimages of elements under rcwa mappings, there are methods
  for  [10XPreImageElm[0X  and  [10XPreImagesElm[0X.  The  preimage  of a finite set of ring
  elements  or  of  a  union  of  finitely  many residue classes under an rcwa
  mapping can be computed by [10XPreImage[0X.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> PreImagesElm(T,8);[0X
    [4X[ 5, 16 ][0X
    [4Xgap> PreImage(T,ResidueClass(Integers,3,2));[0X
    [4XZ \ 0(6) U 2(6)[0X
    [4Xgap> M := [1];; l := [1];;[0X
    [4Xgap> while Length(M) < 5000 do M := PreImage(T,M); Add(l,Length(M)); od; l;[0X
    [4X[ 1, 1, 2, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 14, 18, 26, 36, 50, 67, 89, 117, 157, 208, [0X
    [4X  277, 367, 488, 649, 869, 1154, 1534, 2039, 2721, 3629, 4843, 6458 ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  There  is a method for the operation [10XSupport[0X for computing the support of an
  rcwa  mapping.  A synonym for [10XSupport[0X is [10XMovedPoints[0X. There is also a method
  for [10XRestrictedPerm[0X for computing the restriction of a bijective rcwa mapping
  to a union of residue classes which it fixes setwise.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> List([a,a^2],Support);[0X
    [4X[ Z \ [ -1, 0, 1 ], Z \ [ -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 ] ][0X
    [4Xgap> RestrictedPerm(ClassShift(0,2)*ClassReflection(1,2),[0X
    [4X>                   ResidueClass(0,2));[0X
    [4X<rcwa mapping of Z with modulus 2>[0X
    [4Xgap> last = ClassShift(0,2);[0X
    [4Xtrue[0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  Rcwa  mappings  can  be added and subtracted pointwise. However, please note
  that the set of rcwa mappings of a ring does not form a ring under [10X+[0X and [10X*[0X.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> b := ClassShift(0,3) * a;;[0X
    [4Xgap> [ Image((a + b)), Image((a - b)) ];[0X
    [4X[ 2(4), [ -2, 0 ] ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  There   are  operations  [10XModulus[0X  (abbreviated  [10XMod[0X)  and  [10XCoefficients[0X  for
  retrieving  the  modulus  and  the  coefficient list of an rcwa mapping. The
  meaning of the return values is as described in Section [14X2.2[0X.
  
  General  documentation  for most operations mentioned in this section can be
  found  in the [5XGAP[0X reference manual. For rcwa mappings of rings other than Z,
  not for all operations applicable methods are available.
  
  As  in  general  a  subring relation R_1<R_2 does [13Xnot[0X give rise to a natural
  embedding  of  RCWA(R_1)  into  RCWA(R_2), there is no coercion between rcwa
  mappings or rcwa groups over different rings.
  
  
  [1X2.4 Attributes and properties of residue-class-wise affine mappings[0X
  
  A  number  of basic attributes and properties of an rcwa mapping are derived
  immediately from the coefficients of its affine partial mappings. This holds
  for  example for the multiplier and the divisor. These two values are stored
  as  attributes  [10XMultiplier[0X and [10XDivisor[0X, or for short [10XMult[0X and [10XDiv[0X. The [13Xprime
  set[0X  of  an  rcwa mapping is the set of prime divisors of the product of its
  modulus  and  its multiplier. It is stored as an attribute [10XPrimeSet[0X. An rcwa
  mapping  is  called  [13Xintegral[0X  if  its  divisor equals 1. An rcwa mapping is
  called  [13Xbalanced[0X  if  its  multiplier  and  its  divisor have the same prime
  divisors.  An  integral  mapping  has the property [10XIsIntegral[0X and a balanced
  mapping has the property [10XIsBalanced[0X. An rcwa mapping of the ring of integers
  or  of one of its semilocalizations is called [13Xclass-wise order-preserving[0X if
  and  only  if all coefficients a_r(m) (cf. Section [14X2.1[0X) in the numerators of
  the  affine  partial  mappings  are  positive. The corresponding property is
  [10XIsClassWiseOrderPreserving[0X.  An  rcwa mapping of Z is called [13Xsign-preserving[0X
  if  it does not map nonnegative integers to negative integers or vice versa.
  The  corresponding  property is [10XIsSignPreserving[0X. All elements of the simple
  group   CT(Z)   generated  by  the  set  of  all  class  transpositions  are
  sign-preserving.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> u := RcwaMapping([[3,0,5],[9,1,5],[3,-1,5],[9,-2,5],[9,4,5]]);;[0X
    [4Xgap> IsBijective(u);; Display(u);[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4XBijective rcwa mapping of Z with modulus 5[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4X              n mod 5               |                n^f[0X
    [4X------------------------------------+------------------------------------[0X
    [4X  0                                 | 3n/5[0X
    [4X  1                                 | (9n + 1)/5[0X
    [4X  2                                 | (3n - 1)/5[0X
    [4X  3                                 | (9n - 2)/5[0X
    [4X  4                                 | (9n + 4)/5[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> Multiplier(u);[0X
    [4X9[0X
    [4Xgap> Divisor(u);[0X
    [4X5[0X
    [4Xgap> PrimeSet(u);[0X
    [4X[ 3, 5 ][0X
    [4Xgap> IsIntegral(u) or IsBalanced(u);[0X
    [4Xfalse[0X
    [4Xgap> IsClassWiseOrderPreserving(u) and IsSignPreserving(u);[0X
    [4Xtrue[0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  There  are  a  couple  of  further  attributes and operations related to the
  affine partial mappings of an rcwa mapping:
  
  [1X2.4-1 LargestSourcesOfAffineMappings[0X
  
  [2X> LargestSourcesOfAffineMappings( [0X[3Xf[0X[2X ) _____________________________[0Xattribute
  [6XReturns:[0X  The  coarsest  partition  of  [10XSource([3Xf[0X)[0X on whose elements the rcwa
            mapping [3Xf[0X is affine.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> LargestSourcesOfAffineMappings(ClassShift(3,7));[0X
    [4X[ Z \ 3(7), 3(7) ][0X
    [4Xgap> LargestSourcesOfAffineMappings(ClassReflection(0,1));[0X
    [4X[ Integers ][0X
    [4Xgap> u := RcwaMapping([[3,0,5],[9,1,5],[3,-1,5],[9,-2,5],[9,4,5]]);;[0X
    [4Xgap> List( [ u, u^-1 ], LargestSourcesOfAffineMappings );[0X
    [4X[ [ 0(5), 1(5), 2(5), 3(5), 4(5) ], [ 0(3), 1(3), 2(9), 5(9), 8(9) ] ][0X
    [4Xgap> kappa := ClassTransposition(2,4,3,4) * ClassTransposition(4,6,8,12)[0X
    [4X>           * ClassTransposition(3,4,4,6);[0X
    [4X<bijective rcwa mapping of Z with modulus 12>[0X
    [4Xgap> LargestSourcesOfAffineMappings(kappa);[0X
    [4X[ 2(4), 1(4) U 0(12), 3(12) U 7(12), 4(12), 8(12), 11(12) ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  [1X2.4-2 FixedPointsOfAffinePartialMappings[0X
  
  [2X> FixedPointsOfAffinePartialMappings( [0X[3Xf[0X[2X ) _________________________[0Xattribute
  [6XReturns:[0X  A  list of the sets of fixed points of the affine partial mappings
            of the rcwa mapping [3Xf[0X in the quotient field of its source.
  
  The  returned list contains entries for the restrictions of [3Xf[0X to all residue
  classes  modulo  [10XMod([3Xf[0X)[0X. A list entry can either be an empty set, the source
  of [3Xf[0X  or  a set of cardinality 1. The ordering of the entries corresponds to
  the ordering of the residues in [10XAllResidues(Source([3Xf[0X),[3Xm[0X)[0X.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> FixedPointsOfAffinePartialMappings(ClassShift(0,2));[0X
    [4X[ [  ], Rationals ][0X
    [4Xgap> List([1..3],k->FixedPointsOfAffinePartialMappings(T^k));[0X
    [4X[ [ [ 0 ], [ -1 ] ], [ [ 0 ], [ 1 ], [ 2 ], [ -1 ] ], [0X
    [4X  [ [ 0 ], [ -7 ], [ 2/5 ], [ -5 ], [ 4/5 ], [ 1/5 ], [ -10 ], [ -1 ] ] ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  [1X2.4-3 Multpk[0X
  
  [2X> Multpk( [0X[3Xf, p, k[0X[2X ) _______________________________________________[0Xoperation
  [6XReturns:[0X  The  union  of the residue classes r(m) such that p^k||a_r(m) if k
            >=  0,  and  the  union  of  the  residue  classes  r(m) such that
            p^k||c_r(m)  if  k  <=  0.  In this context, m denotes the modulus
            of [3Xf[0X,  and  a_r(m)  and  c_r(m)  denote  the  coefficients of [3Xf[0X as
            introduced in Section [14X2.1[0X.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> T := RcwaMapping([[1,0,2],[3,1,2]]);; # The Collatz mapping.[0X
    [4Xgap> [ Multpk(T,2,-1), Multpk(T,3,1) ];[0X
    [4X[ Integers, 1(2) ][0X
    [4Xgap> u := RcwaMapping([[3,0,5],[9,1,5],[3,-1,5],[9,-2,5],[9,4,5]]);;[0X
    [4Xgap> [ Multpk(u,3,0), Multpk(u,3,1), Multpk(u,3,2), Multpk(u,5,-1) ];[0X
    [4X[ [  ], 0(5) U 2(5), Z \ 0(5) U 2(5), Integers ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  There  are  attributes  [10XClassWiseOrderPreservingOn[0X,  [10XClassWiseConstantOn[0X and
  [10XClassWiseOrderReversingOn[0X  which  store  the  union  of  the residue classes
  (mod [10XMod([3Xf[0X)[0X)  on  which  an  rcwa  mapping [3Xf[0X  of Z  or of a semilocalization
  thereof  is  class-wise  order-preserving, class-wise constant or class-wise
  order-reversing, respectively.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> List([ClassTransposition(1,2,0,4),ClassShift(2,3),[0X
    [4X>          ClassReflection(2,5)],ClassWiseOrderPreservingOn);[0X
    [4X[ Integers, Integers, Z \ 2(5) ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  Finally,  there  are epimorphisms from the subgroup of RCWA(Z) formed by all
  class-wise order-preserving elements to (Z,+) and from RCWA(Z) itself to the
  cyclic group of order 2, respectively:
  
  [1X2.4-4 Determinant[0X
  
  [2X> Determinant( [0X[3Xf[0X[2X ) ___________________________________________________[0Xmethod
  [6XReturns:[0X  The determinant of the rcwa mapping [3Xf[0X of Z.
  
  The [13Xdeterminant[0X of an affine mapping n -> (an+b)/c whose source is a residue
  class  r(m)  is defined by b/|a|m. This definition is extended additively to
  determinants of rcwa mappings.
  
  Let  f  be  an  rcwa  mapping of the integers, and let m denote its modulus.
  Using the notation f|_r(m): n -> (a_r(m) * n + b_r(m))/c_r(m) for the affine
  partial mappings, the [13Xdeterminant[0X det(f) of f is given by
  
  
                            -----
                             \           b_r(m)
                              >     --------------
                             /       |a_{r(m)}| * m
                            -----
                        r(m) in Z/mZ                .
        The  determinant  mapping is an epimorphism from the group of all class-wise
  order-preserving  bijective  rcwa  mappings  of  Z  to  (Z,+),  see [Koh05],
  Theorem 2.11.9.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> List([ClassTransposition(0,4,5,12),ClassShift(3,7)],Determinant);[0X
    [4X[ 0, 1 ][0X
    [4Xgap> Determinant(ClassTransposition(0,4,5,12)*ClassShift(3,7)^100);   [0X
    [4X100[0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  [1X2.4-5 Sign[0X
  
  [2X> Sign( [0X[3Xg[0X[2X ) _______________________________________________________[0Xattribute
  [6XReturns:[0X  The sign of the bijective rcwa mapping [3Xg[0X of Z.
  
  Let  sigma  be  an  rcwa  permutation  of the integers, and let m denote its
  modulus.  Using  the notation sigma|_r(m): n -> (a_r(m) * n + b_r(m))/c_r(m)
  for the affine partial mappings, the [13Xsign[0X of sigma is defined by
  
  
                                      -----
                                       \       m - 2r
                        det(sigma) +    >      -------
                                       /          m
                                      -----
                                   a_r(m) < 0
                (-1)                                   .
        The  sign  mapping  is an epimorphism from RCWA(Z) to the group Z^x of units
  of Z,  see [Koh05], Theorem 2.12.8. Therefore the kernel of the sign mapping
  is  a  normal  subgroup  of  RCWA(Z) of index 2. The simple group CT(Z) is a
  subgroup of this kernel.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> List([ClassTransposition(3,4,2,6),[0X
    [4X>          ClassShift(0,3),ClassReflection(2,5)],Sign);[0X
    [4X[ 1, -1, -1 ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  
  [1X2.5 Factoring residue-class-wise affine permutations[0X
  
  Factoring  group  elements into the members of some "nice" set of generators
  is often helpful. In this section we describe an operation which attempts to
  solve  this  problem  for  the group RCWA(Z). Elements of finitely generated
  rcwa    groups    can    be    factored    into   generators   "as   usual",
  see [2XPreImagesRepresentative[0X ([14X3.2-3[0X).
  
  [1X2.5-1 FactorizationIntoCSCRCT[0X
  
  [2X> FactorizationIntoCSCRCT( [0X[3Xg[0X[2X ) ____________________________________[0Xattribute
  [2X> Factorization( [0X[3Xg[0X[2X ) _________________________________________________[0Xmethod
  [6XReturns:[0X  A  factorization  of  the bijective rcwa mapping [3Xg[0X of Z into class
            shifts,  class reflections and class transpositions, provided that
            such a factorization exists and the method finds it.
  
  The  method  may  return  [10Xfail[0X,  stop  with  an error message or run into an
  infinite loop. If it returns a result, this result is always correct.
  
  The  problem  of  obtaining  a factorization as described is algorithmically
  difficult,  and  this  factorization  routine  is currently perhaps the most
  sophisticated  part  of  the [5XRCWA[0X package. Information about the progress of
  the  factorization  process can be obtained by setting the info level of the
  Info class [2XInfoRCWA[0X ([14X7.3-1[0X) to 2.
  
  By default, prime switches (-> [2XPrimeSwitch[0X ([14X2.5-2[0X)) are taken as one factor.
  If  the option [3XExpandPrimeSwitches[0X is set, they are each decomposed into the
  6 class transpositions given in the definition.
  
  By default, the factoring process begins with splitting off factors from the
  right.  This  can  be  changed  by setting the option [3XDirection[0X to [10X"from the
  left"[0X.
  
  By  default, a reasonably coarse respected partition of the integral mapping
  occuring  in  the  final  stage  of  the  algorithm is computed. This can be
  suppressed by setting the option [3XShortenPartition[0X equal to [10Xfalse[0X.
  
  By  default,  at the end it is checked whether the product of the determined
  factors  indeed equals [3Xg[0X. This check can be suppressed by setting the option
  [3XNC[0X.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> Factorization(Comm(ClassShift(0,3)*ClassReflection(1,2),[0X
    [4X>                       ClassShift(0,2)));[0X
    [4X[ ClassReflection(2,3), ClassShift(2,6)^-1, ClassTransposition(0,6,2,6), [0X
    [4X  ClassTransposition(0,6,5,6) ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  For purposes of demonstrating the capabilities of the factorization routine,
  in   Section [14X5.1[0X  Collatz'  permutation  is  factored.  Lothar  Collatz  has
  investigated  this  permutation  in 1932.  Its cycle structure is unknown so
  far.
  
  The  permutations  of the following kind play an important role in factoring
  rcwa  permutations  of Z  into  class  shifts,  class  reflections and class
  transpositions:
  
  [1X2.5-2 PrimeSwitch[0X
  
  [2X> PrimeSwitch( [0X[3Xp[0X[2X ) _________________________________________________[0Xfunction
  [2X> PrimeSwitch( [0X[3Xp, k[0X[2X ) ______________________________________________[0Xfunction
  [6XReturns:[0X  In   the   one-argument   form   the   [13Xprime   switch[0X  sigma_p  :=
            tau_0(8),1(2p)    *    tau_4(8),-1(2p)    *    tau_0(4),1(2p)    *
            tau_2(4),-1(2p) * tau_2(2p),1(4p) * tau_4(2p),2p+1(4p), and in the
            two-argument form the restriction of sigma_p by n -> kn.
  
  For  an odd prime p, the prime switch sigma_p is a bijective rcwa mapping of
  Z with modulus 4p, multiplier p and divisor 2. The key mathematical property
  of  a prime switch is that it is a product of class transpositions, but that
  its  multiplier  and  its  divisor are coprime anyway. Prime switches can be
  distinguished from other rcwa mappings by their [5XGAP[0X property [10XIsPrimeSwitch[0X.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> Display(PrimeSwitch(3));[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4XWild bijective rcwa mapping of Z with modulus 12[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4X              n mod 12              |          n^PrimeSwitch(3)[0X
    [4X------------------------------------+------------------------------------[0X
    [4X   0                                | n/2[0X
    [4X   1  7                             | n + 1[0X
    [4X   2  6 10                          | (3n + 4)/2[0X
    [4X   3  9                             | n[0X
    [4X   4                                | n - 3[0X
    [4X   5  8 11                          | n - 1[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> Factorization(PrimeSwitch(3));[0X
    [4X[ ClassTransposition(1,6,0,8), ClassTransposition(5,6,4,8), [0X
    [4X  ClassTransposition(0,4,1,6), ClassTransposition(2,4,5,6), [0X
    [4X  ClassTransposition(2,6,1,12), ClassTransposition(4,6,7,12) ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  Obtaining  a  factorization  of  a bijective rcwa mapping into class shifts,
  class  reflections  and  class  transpositions  is particularly difficult if
  multiplier  and  divisor are coprime. A prototype of permutations which have
  this property has been introduced in a different context in [Kel99]:
  
  [1X2.5-3 mKnot[0X
  
  [2X> mKnot( [0X[3Xm[0X[2X ) _______________________________________________________[0Xfunction
  [6XReturns:[0X  The permutation g_m as introduced in [Kel99].
  
  The argument [3Xm[0X must be an odd integer greater than 1.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> Display(mKnot(5));[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4XWild bijective rcwa mapping of Z with modulus 5[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4X              n mod 5               |             n^mKnot(5)[0X
    [4X------------------------------------+------------------------------------[0X
    [4X  0                                 | 6n/5[0X
    [4X  1                                 | (4n + 1)/5[0X
    [4X  2                                 | (6n - 2)/5[0X
    [4X  3                                 | (4n + 3)/5[0X
    [4X  4                                 | (6n - 4)/5[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  In  his  article,  Timothy  P.  Keller shows that a permutation of this type
  cannot have infinitely many cycles of any given finite length.
  
  
  [1X2.6 Extracting roots of residue-class-wise affine mappings[0X
  
  [1X2.6-1 Root[0X
  
  [2X> Root( [0X[3Xf, k[0X[2X ) _______________________________________________________[0Xmethod
  [6XReturns:[0X  An  rcwa  mapping  [10Xg[0X such that [10Xg^[3Xk[0X=[3Xf[0X[0X, provided that such a mapping
            exists  and  that  there is a method available which can determine
            it.
  
  Currently,  extracting  roots is implemented for rcwa permutations of finite
  order.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> Root(ClassTransposition(0,2,1,2),100);[0X
    [4X<bijective rcwa mapping of Z with modulus 8>[0X
    [4Xgap> Display(last);[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4XBijective rcwa mapping of Z with modulus 8[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4X              n mod 8               |                n^f[0X
    [4X------------------------------------+------------------------------------[0X
    [4X  0 1 2 3 4 5                       | n + 2[0X
    [4X  6                                 | n - 5[0X
    [4X  7                                 | n - 7[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> last^100 = ClassTransposition(0,2,1,2);[0X
    [4Xtrue[0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  
  [1X2.7 Special functions for non-bijective mappings[0X
  
  [1X2.7-1 RightInverse[0X
  
  [2X> RightInverse( [0X[3Xf[0X[2X ) _______________________________________________[0Xattribute
  [6XReturns:[0X  A  right inverse of the injective rcwa mapping [3Xf[0X, i.e. a mapping g
            such that [3Xf[0Xg = 1.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> twice := 2*IdentityRcwaMappingOfZ;[0X
    [4XRcwa mapping of Z: n -> 2n[0X
    [4Xgap> twice * RightInverse(twice);[0X
    [4XIdentityMapping( Integers )[0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  [1X2.7-2 CommonRightInverse[0X
  
  [2X> CommonRightInverse( [0X[3Xl, r[0X[2X ) ______________________________________[0Xoperation
  [6XReturns:[0X  A mapping d such that [3Xl[0Xd = [3Xr[0Xd = 1.
  
  The  mappings  [3Xl[0X  and  [3Xr[0X  must  be  injective,  and their images must form a
  partition of their source.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> twice := 2*IdentityRcwaMappingOfZ; twiceplus1 := twice+1;[0X
    [4XRcwa mapping of Z: n -> 2n[0X
    [4XRcwa mapping of Z: n -> 2n + 1[0X
    [4Xgap> Display(CommonRightInverse(twice,twiceplus1));[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4XRcwa mapping of Z with modulus 2[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4X              n mod 2               |                n^f[0X
    [4X------------------------------------+------------------------------------[0X
    [4X  0                                 | n/2[0X
    [4X  1                                 | (n - 1)/2[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  [1X2.7-3 ImageDensity[0X
  
  [2X> ImageDensity( [0X[3Xf[0X[2X ) _______________________________________________[0Xattribute
  [6XReturns:[0X  The [13Ximage density[0X of the rcwa mapping [3Xf[0X.
  
  In  the  notation introduced in the definition of an rcwa mapping, the [13Ximage
  density[0X   of   an  rcwa  mapping f  is  defined  by  1/m  sum_r(m)  in  R/mR
  |R/c_r(m)R|/|R/a_r(m)R|.  The  image density of an injective rcwa mapping is
  <=  1,  and the image density of a surjective rcwa mapping is >= 1 (this can
  be  seen  easily).  Thus in particular the image density of a bijective rcwa
  mapping is 1.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> T := RcwaMapping([[1,0,2],[3,1,2]]);; # The Collatz mapping.[0X
    [4Xgap> List( [ T, ClassShift(0,1), RcwaMapping([[2,0,1]]) ], ImageDensity );[0X
    [4X[ 4/3, 1, 1/2 ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  Given an rcwa mapping [10Xf[0X, the function [10XInjectiveAsMappingFrom[0X returns a set [10XS[0X
  such that the restriction of [10Xf[0X to [10XS[0X is injective, and such that the image of
  [10XS[0X under [10Xf[0X is the entire image of [10Xf[0X.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> InjectiveAsMappingFrom(T);[0X
    [4X0(2)[0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  
  [1X2.8 On trajectories and cycles of residue-class-wise affine mappings[0X
  
  [5XRCWA[0X provides various methods to compute trajectories of rcwa mappings:
  
  
  [1X2.8-1 Trajectory (methods for rcwa mappings)[0X
  
  [2X> Trajectory( [0X[3Xf, n, length[0X[2X ) _________________________________________[0Xmethod
  [2X> Trajectory( [0X[3Xf, n, length, m[0X[2X ) ______________________________________[0Xmethod
  [2X> Trajectory( [0X[3Xf, n, terminal[0X[2X ) _______________________________________[0Xmethod
  [2X> Trajectory( [0X[3Xf, n, terminal, m[0X[2X ) ____________________________________[0Xmethod
  [6XReturns:[0X  The  first [3Xlength[0X iterates in the trajectory of the rcwa mapping [3Xf[0X
            starting  at [3Xn[0X, respectively the initial part of the trajectory of
            the rcwa mapping [3Xf[0X starting at [3Xn[0X which ends at the first occurence
            of an iterate in the set [3Xterminal[0X. If the argument [3Xm[0X is given, the
            iterates are reduced (mod [3Xm[0X).
  
  To  save  memory  when computing long trajectories containing huge iterates,
  the  reduction (mod [3Xm[0X) is done each time before storing an iterate. In place
  of the ring element [3Xn[0X, the methods also accept a finite set of ring elements
  or a union of residue classes.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> T := RcwaMapping([[1,0,2],[3,1,2]]);; # The Collatz mapping.[0X
    [4Xgap> Trajectory(T,27,15); Trajectory(T,27,20,5);[0X
    [4X[ 27, 41, 62, 31, 47, 71, 107, 161, 242, 121, 182, 91, 137, 206, 103 ][0X
    [4X[ 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 3, 0, 3, 0, 0, 3 ][0X
    [4Xgap> Trajectory(T,15,[1]); Trajectory(T,15,[1],2);[0X
    [4X[ 15, 23, 35, 53, 80, 40, 20, 10, 5, 8, 4, 2, 1 ][0X
    [4X[ 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1 ][0X
    [4Xgap> Trajectory(T,ResidueClass(Integers,3,0),Integers);[0X
    [4X[ 0(3), 0(3) U 5(9), 0(3) U 5(9) U 7(9) U 8(27), [0X
    [4X  <union of 20 residue classes (mod 27)>, [0X
    [4X  <union of 73 residue classes (mod 81)>, Z \ 10(81) U 37(81), Integers ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  
  [1X2.8-2 Trajectory (methods for rcwa mappings -- "accumulated coefficients")[0X
  
  [2X> Trajectory( [0X[3Xf, n, length, whichcoeffs[0X[2X ) ____________________________[0Xmethod
  [2X> Trajectory( [0X[3Xf, n, terminal, whichcoeffs[0X[2X ) __________________________[0Xmethod
  [6XReturns:[0X  Either the list [10Xc[0X of triples of coprime coefficients such that for
            any [10Xk[0X it holds that [10X[3Xn[0X^([3Xf[0X^(k-1)) = (c[k][1]*[3Xn[0X + c[k][2])/c[k][3][0X or
            the  last  entry of that list, depending on whether [3Xwhichcoeffs[0X is
            [10X"AllCoeffs"[0X or [10X"LastCoeffs"[0X.
  
  The  meanings  of  the  arguments [3Xlength[0X and [3Xterminal[0X are the same as in the
  methods  for the operation [10XTrajectory[0X described above. In general, computing
  only   the  last  coefficient  triple  ([3Xwhichcoeffs[0X  =  [10X"LastCoeffs"[0X)  needs
  considerably less memory than computing the entire list.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> Trajectory(T,27,[1],"LastCoeffs");[0X
    [4X[ 36472996377170786403, 195820718533800070543, 1180591620717411303424 ][0X
    [4Xgap> (last[1]*27+last[2])/last[3];[0X
    [4X1[0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  When  dealing with problems like the 3n+1-Conjecture or when determining the
  degree  of  transitivity  of  the  natural  action  of  an rcwa group on its
  underlying ring, an important task is to determine the residue classes whose
  elements get larger or smaller when applying a given rcwa mapping:
  
  
  [1X2.8-3 IncreasingOn & DecreasingOn (for an rcwa mapping)[0X
  
  [2X> IncreasingOn( [0X[3Xf[0X[2X ) _______________________________________________[0Xattribute
  [2X> DecreasingOn( [0X[3Xf[0X[2X ) _______________________________________________[0Xattribute
  [6XReturns:[0X  The  union  of  all  residue  classes r(m) such that |R/a_r(m)R| >
            |R/c_r(m)R|  or  |R/a_r(m)R|  < |R/c_r(m)R|, respectively, where R
            denotes  the  source, m denotes the modulus and a_r(m), b_r(m) and
            c_r(m) denote the coefficients of [3Xf[0X as introduced in Section [14X2.1[0X.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> List([1..3],k->IncreasingOn(T^k));[0X
    [4X[ 1(2), 3(4), 3(4) U 1(8) U 6(8) ][0X
    [4Xgap> List([1..3],k->DecreasingOn(T^k));[0X
    [4X[ 0(2), Z \ 3(4), 0(4) U 2(8) U 5(8) ][0X
    [4Xgap> a := RcwaMapping([[2,0,3],[4,-1,3],[4,1,3]]);; # Collatz' permutation[0X
    [4Xgap> List([-2..2],k->IncreasingOn(a^k));[0X
    [4X[ Z \ 1(8) U 7(8), 0(2), [  ], Z \ 0(3), 1(9) U 4(9) U 5(9) U 8(9) ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  We  assign  certain directed graphs to rcwa mappings, which encode the order
  in which trajectories may traverse the residue classes modulo some modulus:
  
  [1X2.8-4 TransitionGraph[0X
  
  [2X> TransitionGraph( [0X[3Xf, m[0X[2X ) _________________________________________[0Xoperation
  [6XReturns:[0X  The transition graph of the rcwa mapping [3Xf[0X for modulus [3Xm[0X.
  
  The [13Xtransition graph[0X Gamma_f,m of f for modulus m is defined as follows:
  
  (1)   The vertices are the residue classes (mod m).
  
  (2)   There  is an edge from r_1(m) to r_2(m) if and only if there is some n
        in r_1(m) such that n^f in r_2(m).
  
  The  assignment  of the residue classes (mod m) to the vertices of the graph
  corresponds to the ordering of the residues in [10XAllResidues(Source([3Xf[0X),[3Xm[0X)[0X. The
  result is returned in the format used by the package [5XGRAPE[0X [Soi02].
  
  There  are  a  couple  of operations and attributes which are based on these
  graphs:
  
  [1X2.8-5 OrbitsModulo[0X
  
  [2X> OrbitsModulo( [0X[3Xf, m[0X[2X ) ____________________________________________[0Xoperation
  [6XReturns:[0X  The  partition  of  [10XAllResidues(Source([3Xf[0X),[3Xm[0X)[0X  corresponding to the
            weakly  connected  components  of the transition graph of the rcwa
            mapping [3Xf[0X for modulus [3Xm[0X.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> OrbitsModulo(ClassTransposition(0,2,1,4),8);[0X
    [4X[ [ 0, 1, 4 ], [ 2, 5, 6 ], [ 3 ], [ 7 ] ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  [1X2.8-6 FactorizationOnConnectedComponents[0X
  
  [2X> FactorizationOnConnectedComponents( [0X[3Xf, m[0X[2X ) ______________________[0Xoperation
  [6XReturns:[0X  The  set  of  restrictions  of  the  rcwa  mapping [3Xf[0X to the weakly
            connected components of its transition graph Gamma_f,m.
  
  The  product  of  the  returned  mappings  is [3Xf[0X. They have pairwise disjoint
  supports, hence any two of them commute.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> sigma := ClassTransposition(1,4,2,4)  * ClassTransposition(1,4,3,4)[0X
    [4X>           * ClassTransposition(3,9,6,18) * ClassTransposition(1,6,3,9);;[0X
    [4Xgap> List(FactorizationOnConnectedComponents(sigma,36),Support);[0X
    [4X[ 33(36) U 34(36) U 35(36), 9(36) U 10(36) U 11(36), [0X
    [4X  <union of 23 residue classes (mod 36)> \ [ -6, 3 ] ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  [1X2.8-7 TransitionMatrix[0X
  
  [2X> TransitionMatrix( [0X[3Xf, m[0X[2X ) ________________________________________[0Xoperation
  [6XReturns:[0X  The transition matrix of the rcwa mapping [3Xf[0X for modulus [3Xm[0X.
  
  Let  M  be  this  matrix. Then for any two residue classes r_1(m), r_2(m) in
  R/mR, the entry M_r_1(m),r_2(m) is defined by
  
  (see the PDF- or HTML version of the manual), where hatm is the product of [3Xm[0X
  and  the  square  of the modulus of [3Xf[0X. The assignment of the residue classes
  (mod [3Xm[0X) to the rows and columns of the matrix corresponds to the ordering of
  the residues in [10XAllResidues(Source([3Xf[0X),[3Xm[0X)[0X.
  
  The  transition  matrix  is a weighted adjacency matrix of the corresponding
  transition  graph [10XTransitionGraph([3Xf[0X,[3Xm[0X)[0X. The sums of the rows of a transition
  matrix are always equal to 1.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> T := RcwaMapping([[1,0,2],[3,1,2]]);; # The Collatz mapping.[0X
    [4Xgap> Display(TransitionMatrix(T^3,3));[0X
    [4X[ [  1/8,  1/4,  5/8 ],[0X
    [4X  [    0,  1/4,  3/4 ],[0X
    [4X  [    0,  3/8,  5/8 ] ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  
  [1X2.8-8 Sources & Sinks (of an rcwa mapping)[0X
  
  [2X> Sources( [0X[3Xf[0X[2X ) ____________________________________________________[0Xattribute
  [2X> Sinks( [0X[3Xf[0X[2X ) ______________________________________________________[0Xattribute
  [6XReturns:[0X  A  list  of  unions of residue classes modulo the modulus m of the
            rcwa mapping [3Xf[0X, as described below.
  
  The  returned list contains an entry for any strongly connected component of
  the  transition  graph of [3Xf[0X for modulus [10XMod([3Xf[0X)[0X which has only outgoing edges
  ("source")  or which has only ingoing edges ("sink"), respectively. The list
  entry  corresponding  to  such  a  component  is  the  union of the vertices
  belonging to it.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> g := ClassTransposition(0,2,1,2)*ClassTransposition(0,2,1,4);;[0X
    [4Xgap> Sources(g); Sinks(g);[0X
    [4X[ 0(4) ][0X
    [4X[ 1(4) ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  [1X2.8-9 Loops[0X
  
  [2X> Loops( [0X[3Xf[0X[2X ) ______________________________________________________[0Xattribute
  [6XReturns:[0X  If  [3Xf[0X  is  bijective,  the  list  of  non-isolated vertices of the
            transition  graph  of [3Xf[0X  for modulus [10XMod([3Xf[0X)[0X which carry a loop. In
            general, the list of vertices of that transition graph which carry
            a loop, but which [3Xf[0X does not fix setwise.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> Loops(ClassTransposition(0,2,1,2)*ClassTransposition(0,2,1,4));[0X
    [4X[ 0(4), 1(4) ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  There is a nice invariant of trajectories of the Collatz mapping:
  
  [1X2.8-10 GluckTaylorInvariant[0X
  
  [2X> GluckTaylorInvariant( [0X[3Xa[0X[2X ) ________________________________________[0Xfunction
  [6XReturns:[0X  The  invariant  introduced in [GT02]. This is (sum_i=1^l a_i * a_i
            mod l + 1)/(sum_i=1^l a_i^2), where l denotes the length of [3Xa[0X.
  
  The  argument  [3Xa[0X must be a list of integers. In [GT02] it is shown that if [3Xa[0X
  is  a trajectory of the `original' Collatz mapping n -> (n/2 if n even, 3n+1
  if  n  odd)  starting  at  an  odd  integer  >=  3 and ending at 1, then the
  invariant lies in the interval ]9/13,5/7[.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> C := RcwaMapping([[1,0,2],[3,1,1]]);;[0X
    [4Xgap> List([3,5..49],n->Float(GluckTaylorInvariant(Trajectory(C,n,[1]))));[0X
    [4X[ 0.701053, 0.696721, 0.708528, 0.707684, 0.706635, 0.695636, 0.711769,[0X
    [4X  0.699714, 0.707409, 0.693833, 0.710432, 0.706294, 0.714242, 0.699935,[0X
    [4X  0.714242, 0.705383, 0.706591, 0.698198, 0.712222, 0.714242, 0.709048,[0X
    [4X  0.69612, 0.714241, 0.701076 ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  Quite often one can make certain "educated guesses" on the overall behaviour
  of  the  trajectories  of a given rcwa mapping. For example it is reasonably
  straightforward  to make the conjecture that all trajectories of the Collatz
  mapping  eventually enter the finite set -136, -91, -82, -68, -61, -55, -41,
  -37,  -34, -25, -17, -10, -7, -5, -1, 0, 1, 2, or that "on average" the next
  number  in a trajectory of the Collatz mapping is smaller than the preceding
  one  by  a  factor  of sqrt3/2. However it is clear that such guesses can be
  wrong,   and   that  they  therefore  cannot  be  used  to  prove  anything.
  Nevertheless they can sometimes be useful:
  
  [1X2.8-11 LikelyContractionCentre[0X
  
  [2X> LikelyContractionCentre( [0X[3Xf, maxn, bound[0X[2X ) _______________________[0Xoperation
  [6XReturns:[0X  A list of ring elements (see below).
  
  This  operation  tries to compute the [13Xcontraction centre[0X of the rcwa mapping
  [3Xf[0X. Assuming its existence this is the unique finite subset S_0 of the source
  of [3Xf[0X on which [3Xf[0X induces a permutation and which intersects nontrivially with
  any  trajectory  of [3Xf[0X.  The  mapping [3Xf[0X is assumed to be [13Xcontracting[0X, i.e. to
  have such a contraction centre. As in general contraction centres are likely
  not  computable,  the  methods  for this operation are probabilistic and may
  return wrong results. The argument [3Xmaxn[0X is a bound on the starting value and
  [3Xbound[0X  is a bound on the elements of the trajectories to be searched. If the
  limit  [3Xbound[0X  is  exceeded,  an  Info message on Info level 3 of [10XInfoRCWA[0X is
  given.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> T := RcwaMapping([[1,0,2],[3,1,2]]);; # The Collatz mapping.[0X
    [4Xgap> S0 := LikelyContractionCentre(T,100,1000);[0X
    [4X#I  Warning: `LikelyContractionCentre' is highly probabilistic.[0X
    [4XThe returned result can only be regarded as a rough guess.[0X
    [4XSee ?LikelyContractionCentre for more information.[0X
    [4X[ -136, -91, -82, -68, -61, -55, -41, -37, -34, -25, -17, -10, -7, -5, [0X
    [4X  -1, 0, 1, 2 ][0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  [1X2.8-12 GuessedDivergence[0X
  
  [2X> GuessedDivergence( [0X[3Xf[0X[2X ) __________________________________________[0Xoperation
  [6XReturns:[0X  A  floating  point  value which is intended to be a rough guess on
            how  fast  the  trajectories of the rcwa mapping [3Xf[0X diverge (return
            value greater than 1) or converge (return value smaller than 1).
  
  Nothing particular is guaranteed.
  
  [4X---------------------------  Example  ----------------------------[0X
    [4X[0X
    [4Xgap> GuessedDivergence(T);[0X
    [4X#I  Warning: GuessedDivergence: no particular return value is guaranteed.[0X
    [4X0.866025[0X
    [4X[0X
  [4X------------------------------------------------------------------[0X
  
  
  [1X2.9 The categories and families of rcwa mappings[0X
  
  [1X2.9-1 IsRcwaMapping[0X
  
  [2X> IsRcwaMapping( [0X[3Xf[0X[2X ) _________________________________________________[0Xfilter
  [2X> IsRcwaMappingOfZ( [0X[3Xf[0X[2X ) ______________________________________________[0Xfilter
  [2X> IsRcwaMappingOfZ_pi( [0X[3Xf[0X[2X ) ___________________________________________[0Xfilter
  [2X> IsRcwaMappingOfGFqx( [0X[3Xf[0X[2X ) ___________________________________________[0Xfilter
  [6XReturns:[0X  [10Xtrue[0X  if  [3Xf[0X  is  an  rcwa  mapping, an rcwa mapping of the ring of
            integers,  an  rcwa  mapping  of a semilocalization of the ring of
            integers  or  an rcwa mapping of a polynomial ring in one variable
            over a finite field, respectively, and [10Xfalse[0X otherwise.
  
  Often the same methods can be used for rcwa mappings of the ring of integers
  and   of  its  semilocalizations.  For  this  reason  there  is  a  category
  [10XIsRcwaMappingOfZOrZ_pi[0X   which   is   the   union  of  [10XIsRcwaMappingOfZ[0X  and
  [10XIsRcwaMappingOfZ_pi[0X.  The internal representation of rcwa mappings is called
  [10XIsRcwaMappingStandardRep[0X.  There  are  methods available for [10XExtRepOfObj[0X and
  [10XObjByExtRep[0X.
  
  [1X2.9-2 RcwaMappingsFamily[0X
  
  [2X> RcwaMappingsFamily( [0X[3XR[0X[2X ) __________________________________________[0Xfunction
  [6XReturns:[0X  The family of rcwa mappings of the ring [3XR[0X.
  
