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10 Examples
10.1 Examples of groups
10.1-1 FullBinaryGroup
10.1-2 BinaryKneadingGroup
10.1-3 BasilicaGroup
10.1-4 AddingGroup
10.1-5 BinaryAddingGroup
10.1-6 MixerGroup
10.1-7 SunicGroup
10.1-8 GrigorchukMachines
10.1-9 GrigorchukMachine
10.1-10 GrigorchukOverGroup
10.1-11 GrigorchukEvilTwin
10.1-12 BrunnerSidkiVieiraGroup
10.1-13 AleshinGroups
10.1-14 AleshinGroup
10.1-15 BabyAleshinGroup
10.1-16 SidkiFreeGroup
10.1-17 GuptaSidkiGroups
10.1-18 GuptaSidkiGroup
10.1-19 NeumannGroup
10.1-20 FabrykowskiGuptaGroup
10.1-21 OtherSpinalGroup
10.1-22 GammaPQMachine
10.1-23 HanoiGroup
10.1-24 DahmaniGroup
10.1-25 MamaghaniGroup
10.1-26 WeierstrassGroup
10.1-27 FRAffineGroup
10.1-28 CayleyGroup
10.2 Examples of semigroups
10.2-1 I2Machine
10.2-2 I4Machine
10.3 Examples of algebras
10.3-1 PSZAlgebra
10.3-2 GrigorchukThinnedAlgebra
10.3-3 GuptaSidkiThinnedAlgebra
10.3-4 SidkiFreeAlgebra
10.4 Bacher's determinant identities
10.5 VH groups
10.5-1 VHStructure
10.5-2 VerticalAction
10.5-3 VHGroup
10.5-4 IsIrreducibleVHGroup
10.5-5 MaximalSimpleSubgroup

### 10 Examples

FR predefines a large collection of machines and groups. The groups are, whenever possible, defined as state closures of corresponding Mealy machines.

#### 10.1 Examples of groups

##### 10.1-1 FullBinaryGroup

`> FullBinaryGroup` | ( global variable )

`> FiniteDepthBinaryGroup`( l ) | ( function )

`> FinitaryBinaryGroup` | ( global variable )

`> BoundedBinaryGroup` | ( global variable )

`> PolynomialGrowthBinaryGroup` | ( global variable )

`> FiniteStateBinaryGroup` | ( global variable )

These are the finitary, bounded, polynomial-growth, finite-state, or unrestricted groups acting on the binary tree. They are respectively shortcuts for `FullSCGroup([1..2])`, `FullSCGroup([1..2],l)`, `FullSCGroup([1..2],IsFinitaryFRSemigroup)`, `FullSCGroup([1..2],IsBoundedFRSemigroup)`, `FullSCGroup([1..2],IsPolynomialGrowthFRSemigroup)`, and `FullSCGroup([1..2],IsFiniteStateFRSemigroup)`.

They may be used to draw random elements, or to test membership.

##### 10.1-2 BinaryKneadingGroup

`> BinaryKneadingGroup`( angle/ks ) | ( function )

`> BinaryKneadingMachine`( angle/ks ) | ( function )

Returns: The [machine generating the] iterated monodromy group of a quadratic polynomial.

The first function constructs a Mealy machine whose state closure is the binary kneading group.

The second function constructs a new FR group `G`, which is the iterated monodromy group of a quadratic polynomial, either specified by its angle or by its kneading sequence(s).

If the argument is a (rational) angle, the attribute `Correspondence(G)` is a function returning, for any rational, the corresponding generator of `G`.

If there is one argument, which is a list or a string, it is treated as the kneading sequence of a periodic (superattracting) polynomial. The sequence is implicity assumed to end by '*'. The attribute `Correspondence(G)` is a list of the generators of `G`.

If there are two arguments, which are lists or strings, they are treated as the preperiod and period of the kneading sequence of a preperiodic polynomial. The last symbol of the arguments must differ. The attribute `Correspondence(G)` is a pair of lists of generators; `Correspondence(G)[1]` is the preperiod, and `Correspondence(G)[2]` is the period. The attribute `KneadingSequence(G)` returns the kneading sequence, as a pair of strings representing preperiod and period respectively.

As particular examples, `BinaryKneadingMachine()` is the adding machine; `BinaryKneadingGroup()` is the adding machine; and `BinaryKneadingGroup("1")` is `BasilicaGroup` (10.1-3).

    gap> BinaryKneadingGroup()=AddingGroup(2);
    true
    gap> BinaryKneadingGroup(1/3)=BasilicaGroup;
    true
    gap> g := BinaryKneadingGroup([0,1],[0]);
    BinaryKneadingGroup("01","0")
    gap> ForAll(Correspondence(g)[1],IsFinitaryFRElement);
    true
    gap> ForAll(Correspondence(g)[2],IsFinitaryFRElement);
    false
    gap> ForAll(Correspondence(g)[2],IsBoundedFRElement);
    true

##### 10.1-3 BasilicaGroup

`> BasilicaGroup` | ( global variable )

The Basilica group. This is a shortcut for `BinaryKneadingGroup("1")`. It is the first-discovered amenable group that is not subexponentially amenable, see [BV05] and [GŻ02a].

    gap> IsBoundedFRSemigroup(BasilicaGroup);
    true
    gap> pi := EpimorphismFromFreeGroup(BasilicaGroup); F := Source(pi);;
    [ x1, x2 ] -> [ a, b ]
    gap> sigma := GroupHomomorphismByImages(F,F,[F.1,F.2],[F.2,F.1^2]);
    [ x1, x2 ] -> [ x2, x1^2 ]
    gap> ForAll([0..10],i->IsOne(Comm(F.2,F.2^F.1)^(sigma^i*pi)));
    true

##### 10.1-4 AddingGroup

`> AddingGroup`( n ) | ( function )

`> AddingMachine`( n ) | ( function )

`> AddingElement`( n ) | ( function )

The second function constructs the adding machine on the alphabet `[1..n]`. This machine has a trivial state 1, and a non-trivial state 2. It implements the operation "add 1 with carry" on sequences.

The third function constructs the Mealy element on the adding machine, with initial state 2.

The first function constructs the state-closed group generated by the adding machine on `[1..n]`. This group is isomorphic to the `Integers`.

    gap> Display(AddingElement(3));
       |  1     2     3
    ---+-----+-----+-----+
     a | a,1   a,2   a,3
     b | a,2   a,3   b,1
    ---+-----+-----+-----+
    Initial state: b
    gap> Activity(FRElement(AddingMachine(3),2),2);
    (1,4,7,2,5,8,3,6,9)
    gap> G := AddingGroup(3);
    <self-similar group over [ 1 .. 3 ] with 1 generator>
    gap> Size(G);
    infinity
    gap> IsRecurrent(G);
    true
    gap> IsLevelTransitive(G);
    true

##### 10.1-5 BinaryAddingGroup

`> BinaryAddingGroup` | ( global variable )

`> BinaryAddingMachine` | ( global variable )

`> BinaryAddingElement` | ( global variable )

These are respectively the same as `AddingGroup(2)`, `AddingMachine(2)` and `AddingElement(2)`.

##### 10.1-6 MixerGroup

`> MixerGroup`( A, B, f[, g] ) | ( function )

`> MixerMachine`( A, B, f[, g] ) | ( function )

Returns: A Mealy "mixer" machine/group.

The second function constructs a Mealy "mixer" machine `m`. This is a machine determined by a permutation group A, a finitely generated group B, and a matrix of homomorphisms from B to A. If A acts on `[1..d]`, then each row of f contains at most d-1 homomorphisms. The optional last argument is an endomorphism of B. If absent, it is treated as the identity map on B.

The states of the machine are 1, followed by some elements `a` of A, followed by as many copies of some elements `b` of B as there are rows in f. The elements in B that are taken is the smallest sublist of B containing its generators and closed under g. The elements in A that are taken are the generators of A and all images of all taken elements of B under maps in f.

The transitions from `a` are towards 1 and the outputs are the permutations in A. The transitions from `b` are periodically given by f, completed by trivial elements, and finally by b^g; the output of `b` is trivial.

This construction is described in more detail in [BŠ01] and [BGŠ03].

`Correspondence(m)` is a list, with in first position the subset of the states that correspond to A, in second position the states that correspond to the first copy of B, etc.

The first function constructs the group generated by the mixer machine. For examples see `GrigorchukGroups` (10.1-8), `NeumannGroup` (10.1-19), `GuptaSidkiGroups` (10.1-17), and `OtherSpinalGroup` (10.1-21).

    gap> grigorchukgroup := MixerGroup(Group((1,2)),Group((1,2)),
         [[IdentityMapping(Group((1,2)))],[IdentityMapping(Group((1,2)))],[]]));
    <self-similar group over [ 1 .. 2 ] with 4 generators>
    gap> IdGroup(Group(grigorchukgroup.1,grigorchukgroup.2));
    [ 32, 18 ]

##### 10.1-7 SunicGroup

`> SunicGroup`( phi ) | ( function )

`> Sunicmachine`( phi ) | ( function )

Returns: The Sunic machine associated with the polynomial phi.

A "Sunic machine" is a special kind of `MixerMachine` (10.1-6), in which the group A is a finite field GF(q), the group B is an extension A[x]/(phi), where phi is a monic polynomial; there is a map f:B-> A, given say by evaluation; and there is an endomorphism of g:B-> B given by multiplication by phi.

These groups were described in [Šun07]. In particular, the case q=2 and phi=x^2+x+1 gives the original `GrigorchukGroup` (10.1-9).

    gap> x := Indeterminate(GF(2));;
    gap> g := SunicGroup(x^2+x+1);
    SunicGroup(x^2+x+Z(2)^0)
    gap> g = GrigorchukGroup;
    true

##### 10.1-8 GrigorchukMachines

`> GrigorchukMachines`( omega ) | ( function )

`> GrigorchukGroups`( omega ) | ( function )

Returns: One of the Grigorchuk groups.

This function constructs the Grigorchuk machine or group associated with the infinite sequence omega, which is assumed (pre)periodic; omega is either a periodic list (see `PeriodicList` (12.1-6)) or a plain list describing the period. Entries in the list are integers in `[1..3]`.

These groups are `MixerGroup` (10.1-6)s. The most famous example is `GrigorchukGroups([1,2,3])`, which is also called `GrigorchukGroup` (10.1-9).

These groups are all 4-generated and infinite. They are described in [Gri84]. `GrigorchukGroups([1])` is infinite dihedral. If omega contains at least 2 different digits, `GrigorchukGroups([1])` has intermediate word growth. If omega contains all 3 digits, `GrigorchukGroups([1])` is torsion.

The growth of `GrigorchukGroups([1,2])` has been studied in [Ers04].

    gap> G := GrigorchukGroups([1]);
    <self-similar group over [ 1 .. 2 ] with 4 generators>
    gap> Index(G,DerivedSubgroup(G)); IsAbelian(DerivedSubgroup(G));
    4
    true
    gap> H := GrigorchukGroups([1,2]);
    <self-similar group over [ 1 .. 2 ] with 4 generators>
    gap> Order(H.1*H.2);
    8
    gap> Order(H.1*H.4);
    infinity
    gap> IsSubgroup(H,G);
    true

##### 10.1-9 GrigorchukMachine

`> GrigorchukMachine` | ( global variable )

`> GrigorchukGroup` | ( global variable )

This is Grigorchuk's first group, introduced in [Gri80]. It is a 4-generated infinite torsion group, and has intermediate word growth. It could have been defined as `FRGroup("a=(1,2)","b=<a,c>","c=<a,d>","d=<,b>")`, but is rather defined using Mealy elements.

The command `EpimorphismFromFpGroup(GrigorchukGroup,n)` will will construct an approximating presentation for the Grigorchuk group, as proven in [Lys85]. Adding the relations `Image(sigma^(n-2),(a*d)^2)`, `Image(sigma^(n-1),(a*b)^2)` and `Image(sigma^(n-2),(a*c)^4)` yields the quotient acting on 2^n points, as a finitely presented group.

##### 10.1-10 GrigorchukOverGroup

`> GrigorchukOverGroup` | ( global variable )

This is a group strictly containing the Grigorchuk group (see `GrigorchukGroup` (10.1-9)). It also has intermediate growth (see [BG02], but it contains elements of infinite order. It could have been defined as `FRGroup("a=(1,2)","b=<a,c>","c=<,d>","d=<,b>")`, but is rather defined using Mealy elements.

    gap> IsSubgroup(GrigorchukOverGroup,GrigorchukGroup);
    true
    gap> Order(Product(GeneratorsOfGroup(GrigorchukOverGroup)));
    infinity
    gap> GrigorchukGroup.2=GrigorchukSuperGroup.2*GrigorchukSuperGroup.3;
    true

The command `EpimorphismFromFpGroup(GrigorchukOverGroup,n)` will will construct an approximating presentation for the Grigorchuk overgroup, as proven in [Bar03b].

##### 10.1-11 GrigorchukEvilTwin

`> GrigorchukEvilTwin` | ( global variable )

This is a group with same closure as the Grigorchuk group (see `GrigorchukGroup` (10.1-9)), but not isomorphic to it. It could have been defined as `FRGroup("a=(1,2)","x=<y,a>","y=<a,z>","z=<,x>")`, but is rather defined using Mealy elements.

    gap> AbelianInvariants(GrigorchukEvilTwin);
    [ 2, 2, 2, 2 ]
    gap> AbelianInvariants(GrigorchukGroup);
    [ 2, 2, 2 ]
    gap> PermGroup(GrigorchukGroup,8)=PermGroup(GrigorchukEvilTwin,8);
    true

##### 10.1-12 BrunnerSidkiVieiraGroup

`> BrunnerSidkiVieiraGroup` | ( global variable )

`> BrunnerSidkiVieiraMachine` | ( global variable )

This machine is the sum of two adding machines, one in standard form and one conjugated by the element `d` described below. The group that it generates is described in [BSV99]. It could have been defined as `FRGroup("tau=<,tau>(1,2)","mu=<,mu^-1>(1,2)")`, but is rather defined using Mealy elements.

    gap> V := FRGroup("d=<e,e>(1,2)","e=<d,d>");
    <self-similar group over [ 1 .. 2 ] with 2 generators>
    gap> Elements(V);
    [ <2|identity ...>, <2|e>, <2|d>, <2|e*d> ]
    gap> AssignGeneratorVariables(BrunnerSidkiVieiraGroup);
    #I  Assigned the global variables [ "tau", "mu", "" ]
    gap> List(V,x->tau^x)=[tau,mu,mu^-1,tau^-1];
    true

##### 10.1-13 AleshinGroups

`> AleshinGroups`( l ) | ( function )

`> AleshinMachines`( l ) | ( function )

Returns: The Aleshin machine with `Length(l)` states.

This function constructs the bireversible machines introduced by Aleshin in [Ale83]. The argument l is a list of permutations, either `()` or `(1,2)`. The groups that they generate are contructed as `AleshinGroups`.

If `l=[(1,2),(1,2),()]`, this is `AleshinGroup` (10.1-14). More generally, if `l=[(1,2,(1,2),(),...,()]` has odd length, this is a free group of rank `Length(l)`, see [VV06].

If `l=[(1,2),(1,2),...]` has even length and contains an even number of `()`'s, then this is also a free group of rank `Length(l)`, see [SVV06].

If `l=[(),(),(1,2)]`, this is `BabyAleshinGroup` (10.1-15). more generally, if `l=[(),(),...]` has even length and contains an even number of `(1,2)`'s, then this is the free product of `Length(l)` copies of the order-2 group.

##### 10.1-14 AleshinGroup

`> AleshinGroup` | ( global variable )

`> AleshinMachine` | ( global variable )

This is the first example of non-abelian free group. It is the group generated by `AleshinMachine([(1,2),(1,2),()])`. It could have been defined as `FRGroup("a=<b,c>(1,2)","b=<c,b>(1,2)","c=<a,a>")`, but is rather defined using Mealy elements.

##### 10.1-15 BabyAleshinGroup

`> BabyAleshinGroup` | ( global variable )

`> BabyAleshinMachine` | ( global variable )

There are only two connected, transitive bireversible machines on a 2-letter alphabet, with 3 generators: `AleshinMachine(3)` and the baby Aleshin machine.

The group generated by this machine is abstractly the free product of three C_2's, see [Nek05, 1.10.3]. It could have been defined as `FRGroup("a=<b,c>","b=<c,b>","c=<a,a>(1,2)")`, but is rather defined here using Mealy elements.

    gap> K := Kernel(GroupHomomorphismByImagesNC(BabyAleshinGroup,Group((1,2)),
                     GeneratorsOfGroup(BabyAleshinGroup),[(1,2),(1,2),(1,2)]));
    <self-similar group over [ 1 .. 2 ] with 4 generators>
    gap> Index(BabyAleshinGroup,K);
    2
    gap> IsSubgroup(AleshinGroup,K);
    true

##### 10.1-16 SidkiFreeGroup

`> SidkiFreeGroup` | ( global variable )

This is a group suggested by Sidki as an example of a non-abelian state-closed free group. Nothing is known about that group: whether it is free as conjectured; whether generator a is state-closed, etc. It is defined as `FRGroup("a=<a^2,a^t>","t=<,t>(1,2)")]]>`.

##### 10.1-17 GuptaSidkiGroups

`> GuptaSidkiGroups`( n ) | ( function )

`> GeneralizedGuptaSidkiGroups`( n ) | ( function )

`> GuptaSidkiMachines`( n ) | ( function )

Returns: The Gupta-Sidki machine on an n-letter alphabet.

This function constructs the machines introduced by Gupta and Sidki in [GS83]. They generate finitely generated infinite torsion groups: the exponent of every element divides some power of n. The special case n=3 is defined as `GuptaSidkiGroup` (10.1-18) and `GuptaSidkiMachine` (10.1-18).

For n>3, there are (at least) two natural ways to generalize the Gupta-Sidki construction: the original one involves the recursion `"t=<a,a^-1,1,...,1,t>"`, while the second (called here `generalized') involves the recursion `"t=<a,a^2,...,a^-1,t>"`. A finite L-presentation for the latter is implemented. It is not as computationally efficient as the L-presentation of the normal closure of `t` (a subgroup of index p), which is an ascending L-presented group. The inclusion of that subgroup may be recoverd via `EmbeddingOfAscendingSubgroup(GuptaSidkiGroup)`.

##### 10.1-18 GuptaSidkiGroup

`> GuptaSidkiGroup` | ( global variable )

`> GuptaSidkiMachine` | ( global variable )

This is an infinite, 2-generated, torsion 3-group. It could have been defined as `FRGroup("a=(1,2,3)","t=<a,a^-1,t>")`, but is rather defined using Mealy elements.

##### 10.1-19 NeumannGroup

`> NeumannGroup`( P ) | ( function )

`> NeumannMachine`( P ) | ( function )

Returns: The Neumann machine/group on the permutation group P.

The first function constructs the Neumann machine associated to the permutation group P. It is a shortcut for `MixerMachine(P,P,[[IdentityMapping(P)]])`.

The second function constructs the Neumann group on the permutation group P. These groups were first considered in [Neu86]. In particular, `NeumannGroup(PSL(3,2))` is a group of non-uniform exponential growth (see [Bar03a]), and `NeumannGroup(Group((1,2,3)))` is `FabrykowskiGuptaGroup` (10.1-20).

The attribute `Correspondence(G)` is set to a list of homomorphisms from P to the `A` and `B` copies of `P`.

##### 10.1-20 FabrykowskiGuptaGroup

`> FabrykowskiGuptaGroup` | ( global variable )

`> FabrykowskiGuptaGroups`( p ) | ( function )

This is an infinite, 2-generated group of intermediate word growth. It was studied in [FG85] and [FG91]. It could have been defined as `FRGroup("a=(1,2,3)","t=<a,,t>")`, but is rather defined using Mealy elements. It has a torsion-free subgroup of index 3 and is branched.

The natural generalization, replacing 3 by p, is constructed by the second form. It is a specific case of Neumann group (see `NeumannGroup` (10.1-19)), for which an ascending L-presentation is known.

##### 10.1-21 OtherSpinalGroup

`> OtherSpinalGroup` | ( global variable )

This is an infinite, 2-generated group, which was studied in [BG02]. It has a torsion-free subgroup of index 3, and is virtually branched but not branched. It could have been defined as `FRGroup("a=(1,2,3)","t=<a,a,t>")`, but is rather defined using Mealy elements.

##### 10.1-22 GammaPQMachine

`> GammaPQMachine`( p, q ) | ( function )

`> GammaPQGroup`( p, q ) | ( function )

Returns: The quaternion-based machine / SC group.

The first function constructs a bireversible (see `IsBireversible` (5.2-7)) Mealy machine based on quaternions, see [BM00a] and [BM00b]. This machine has p+1 states indexed by integer quaternions of norm p, and an alphabet of size q+1 indexed by quaternions of norm q. These quaternions are congruent to 1mod 2 or imod 2 depending on whether the odd prime p or q is 1 or 3mod 4.

The structure of the machine is such that there is a transition from (q,a) to (q',a') precisely when qa'=pm q'a. In particular, the relations of the `StructuralGroup` (3.5-1) hold up to a sign, when the alphabet/state letters are substituted for the appropriate quaternions.

The quaternions themselves can be recovered through `Correspondence` (3.5-11), which is a list with in first position the quaternions of norm p and in second those of norm q.

The second function constructs the quaternion lattice that is the `StructuralGroup` (3.5-1) of that machine. It has actions on two trees, given by `VerticalAction` (10.5-2) and `HorizontalAction` (10.5-2); the ranges of these actions are groups generated by automata, which are infinitely-transitive (see `IsInfinitelyTransitive` (7.2-12)) and free by [GM05, Proposition 3.3]; see also [Ale83].

##### 10.1-23 HanoiGroup

`> HanoiGroup`( n ) | ( function )

Returns: The Hanoi group on an n pegs.

This function constructs the Hanoi group on n pegs. Generators of the group correspond to moving a peg, and tree vertices correspond to peg configurations. This group is studied in [GŠ06].

##### 10.1-24 DahmaniGroup

`> DahmaniGroup` | ( global variable )

This is an example of a non-contracting weakly branched group. It was first studied in [Dah05]. It could have been defined as `FRGroup("a=<c,a>(1,2)","b=<b,a>(1,2)","c=<b,c>")`, but is rather defined using Mealy elements.

It has relators abc, [a^2c,[a,c]], [cab,a^-1c^-1ab] and [ac^2,c^-1b^-1c^2] among others.

It admits an endomorphism on its derived subgroup. Indeed `FRElement(1,Comm(a,b))=Comm(c^-1,b/a)`, `FRElement(1,Comm(a,c))=Comm(a/b,c)`, `FRElement(1,Comm(b,c))=Comm(c,(a/b)^c)`.

##### 10.1-25 MamaghaniGroup

`> MamaghaniGroup` | ( global variable )

This group was studied in [Mam03]. It is fractal, but not contracting. It could have been defined as `FRGroup("a=<,b>(1,2)","b=<a,c>","c=<a,a^-1>(1,2)")]]>`, but is rather defined using Mealy elements. It partially admits branching on its subgroup `Subgroup(G,[a^2,(a^2)^b,(a^2)^c])`, and, setting `x=Comm(a^2,b)`, on `Subgroup(G,[x,x^a,x^b,x^(b*a),x^(b/a)])`. One has `FRElement(1,x)=(x^-1)^b/x`.

##### 10.1-26 WeierstrassGroup

`> WeierstrassGroup` | ( global variable )

This is the iterated monodromy group associated with the Weierstrass wp-function.

Some relators in the group: (atbt)^4, ((atbt)(bt)^4n)^4, ((atbt)^2(bt)^4n)^2.

Set x=[a,t], y=[b,t], z=[c,t], and w=[x,y]. Then G'=< x,y,z> of index 8, and gamma_3=<[{x,y,z},{a,b,c}]> of index 32, and gamma_4=G''=< w>^G, of index 256, and G''>(G'')^4 since [[t^a,t],[t^b,t]]=(w,1,1,1).

The Schreier graph is obtained in the complex plane as the image of a 2^nx 2^n lattice in the torus, via Weierstrass's wp-function.

The element at has infinite order.

[c,t,b][b,t,c][a,t,c][c,t,a] has order 2, and belongs to G''; so there exist elements of arbitrary large finite order in the group.

##### 10.1-27 FRAffineGroup

`> FRAffineGroup`( d, R, u[, transversal] ) | ( operation )

Returns: The d-dimensional affine group over R.

This function constructs a new FR group `G`, which is finite-index subgroup of the d-dimensional affine group over R_u, the local ring over R in which all non-multiples of u are invertible. Since no generators of `G` are known, `G` is in fact returned as a full SC group; only its attribute `Correspondence(G)`, which is a homomorphism from GL_d+1(R_u) to `G`, is relevant.

The affine group can also be described as a subgroup of GL_d+1(R_u), consisting of those matrices M with M_i,d+1=0 and M_d+1,d+1=1. The finite-index subgroup is defined by the conditions u|M_i,j for all j<i.

The only valid arguments are `R=Integers` and `R=PolynomialRing(S)` for a finite ring `S`. The alphabet of the affine group is R/RuR; an explicit transversal of RuR be specified as last argument.

The following examples construct the "Baumslag-Solitar group" Z[frac12]rtimes_2 Z first introduced in [BS62], the "lamplighter group" ( Z/2)wr Z, and a 2-dimensional affine group. Note that the lamplighter group may also be defined via `CayleyGroup` (10.1-28).

    gap> A := FRAffineGroup(1,Integers,3);
    <self-similar group over [ 1 .. 3 ]>
    gap> f := Correspondence(A);
    MappingByFunction( ( Integers^
    [ 2, 2 ] ), <self-similar group over [ 1 .. 3 ]>, function( mat ) ... end )
    gap> BaumslagSolitar := Group([[2,0],[0,1]]^f,[[1,0],[1,1]]^f);
    <self-similar group over [ 1 .. 3 ] with 2 generators>
    gap> BaumslagSolitar.2^BaumslagSolitar.1=BaumslagSolitar.2^2;
    true
    gap> R := PolynomialRing(GF(2));;
    gap> A := FRAffineGroup(1,R,R.1);;
    gap> f := Correspondence(A);;
    gap> Lamplighter := Group(([[1+R.1,0],[0,1]]*One(R))^f,([[1,0],[1,1]]*One(R))^f);
    <self-similar group over [ 1 .. 2 ] with 2 generators>
    gap> Lamplighter = CayleyGroup(Group((1,2)));
    true
    gap> StructureDescription(Group(Lamplighter.2,Lamplighter.2^Lamplighter.1));
    "C2 x C2"
    gap> ForAll([1..10],i->IsOne(Comm(Lamplighter.2,Lamplighter.2^(Lamplighter.1^i))));
    true
    gap> A := FRAffineGroup(2,Integers,2);;
    gap> f := Correspondence(A);;
    gap> a := [[1,4,0],[2,3,0],[1,0,1]];
    [ [ 1, 4, 0 ], [ 2, 3, 0 ], [ 1, 0, 1 ] ]
    gap> b := [[1,2,0],[4,3,0],[0,1,1]];
    [ [ 1, 2, 0 ], [ 4, 3, 0 ], [ 0, 1, 1 ] ]
    gap> Display(b^f);
        |   1      2
    ----+------+------+
      a |  b,1    c,2
      b |  d,2    e,1
      c |  a,2    f,1
    ...
     bh | cb,1   be,2
     ca | bd,1   bf,2
     cb | ae,2   bh,1
    ----+------+------+
    Initial state:  a
    gap> a^f*b^f=(a*b)^f;
    true

##### 10.1-28 CayleyGroup

`> CayleyGroup`( G ) | ( function )

`> CayleyMachine`( G ) | ( function )

`> LamplighterGroup`( G ) | ( operation )

Returns: The Cayley machine/group of the group G.

The Cayley machine of a group G is a machine with alphabet and stateset equal to G, and with output and transition functions given by multiplication in the group, in the order `state*letter`.

The second function constructs a new FR group CG, which acts on `[1..Size(G)]`. Its generators are in bijection with the elements of G, and have as output the corresponding permutation of G induced by right multiplication, and as transitions all elements of G; see `CayleyMachine`. This construction was introduced in [SS05].

If G is an abelian group, CG is the wreath product Gwr Z; it is created by the constructor `LamplighterGroup(IsFRGroup,G)`.

The attribute `Correspondence(CG)` is a list. Its first entry is a homomorphism from G into `CG`. Its second entry is the generator of `CG` that has trivial output. `CG` is generated `Correspondence(CG)[2]` and the image of `Correspondence(CG)[1]`.

In the example below, recall the definition of `Lamplighter` in the example of `FRAffineGroup` (10.1-27).

    gap> L := CayleyGroup(Group((1,2)));
    CayleyGroup(Group( [ (1,2) ] ))
    gap> L=LamplighterGroup(IsFRGroup,CyclicGroup(2));
    true
    gap> (1,2)^Correspondence(L)[1];
    <Mealy element on alphabet [ 1, 2 ] with 2 states, initial state 1>
    gap> IsFinitaryFRElement(last); Display(last2);
    true
       |  1     2
    ---+-----+-----+
     a | b,2   b,1
     b | b,1   b,2
    ---+-----+-----+
    Initial state: a

#### 10.2 Examples of semigroups

##### 10.2-1 I2Machine

`> I2Machine` | ( global variable )

`> I2Monoid` | ( global variable )

The Mealy machine I_2, and the monoid that it generates. This is the smallest Mealy machine generating a monoid of intermediate word growth; see [BRS06].

For sample calculations in this monoid see `SCSemigroup` (7.1-2).

##### 10.2-2 I4Machine

`> I4Machine` | ( global variable )

`> I4Monoid` | ( global variable )

The Mealy machine generating I_4, and the monoid that it generates. This is a very small Mealy machine generating a monoid of intermediate word growth; see [BR05].

For sample calculations in this monoid see `SCMonoid` (7.1-2).

#### 10.3 Examples of algebras

##### 10.3-1 PSZAlgebra

`> PSZAlgebra`( k ) | ( function )

This function creates an associative algebra `A`, over the field k of positive characteristic, generated by two derivations `u,v`. This algebra has polynomial growth, and is not nilpotent. Petrogradsky showed in [Pet06] that the Lie subalgebra of `PSZAlgebra(GF(2))` generated by v,[u,v] is nil; this result was generalized by Shestakov and Zelmanov in [SZ08] to arbitrary k.

    gap> a := PSZAlgebra(2);
    PSZAlgebra(GF(2))
    gap> Nillity(a.1); Nillity(a.2);
    2
    4
    gap> IsNilpotentElement(LieBracket(a.1,a.2));
    true
    gap> DecompositionOfFRElement(LieBracket(a.1,a.2))=DiagonalMat([a.2,a.2]);
    true

##### 10.3-2 GrigorchukThinnedAlgebra

`> GrigorchukThinnedAlgebra`( k ) | ( function )

This function creates the associative envelope `A`, over the field k, of Grigorchuk's group `GrigorchukGroup` (10.1-9). !!!

    gap> !!!

##### 10.3-3 GuptaSidkiThinnedAlgebra

`> GuptaSidkiThinnedAlgebra`( k ) | ( function )

This function creates the associative envelope `A`, over the field k, of Gupta-Sidki's group `GuptaSidkiGroup` (10.1-18). !!!

    gap> !!!

##### 10.3-4 SidkiFreeAlgebra

`> SidkiFreeAlgebra`( k ) | ( function )

!!!

    gap> !!!

#### 10.4 Bacher's determinant identities

In his paper [Bac07], Roland Bacher exhibits striking formulas for determinants of matrices obtained from binomial coefficients.

The general construction is as follows: let P be an infinite matrix, and let P(n) be its upper nx n corner. To evaluate det P(n), decompose P=LDR where L,D,R are respectively lower triangular, diagonal, and upper triangular, with 1's on the diagonals of L and R. Then that determinant is the product of the first n entries of D.

Bacher considers some natural examples of matrices arising from binomial coefficients, and notes that the matrix P is the limit of a convergent vector element (see `IsConvergent` (6.1-8)). He also notes that the decomposition P=LDR may be achieved within vector elements.

As a first example, consider the nx n matrix P(n) with coefficients P_s,t=s+t choose smod 2. Here and below, indices start at 0. Let also ds(n) denote the digit-sum of the integer n. Then

\det(P(n))=\cases{ (-1)^{n/2} & if $n$ is even,\cr (-1)^{(n-1)/2+ds((n-1)/2)} & if $n$ is odd.}

For the proof, note that P is a convergent infinite matrix; it may be presented as a self-similar linear element by `FRAlgebra("P=[[P,P],[P,0]]")`. It then suffices to construct an LR decomposition of P within FR vector elements, following Bacher:

    gap> AssignGeneratorVariables(FRAlgebra(Rationals,
        "P=[[P,P],[P,0]]","L=[[L,0],[L,L]]","D=[[D,0],[0,-D]]"));
    gap> L*D*TransposedFRElement(L)=P;
    true

and to analyse the elements of the diagonal matrix D.

For a more complicated example, let v_2 denote 2-valuation of a rational, and construct the nx n matrix V(n) with coefficients V_s,t=i^v_2(s+t choose s). Then

\det(V(n))=\det(P(n))\prod_{k=1}^{n-1}(1-f(k)i),

where f(k) is the regular paper-folding sequence defined by f(2^n)=1 and f(2^n+a)=-f(2^n-a) for 1le a<2^n.

This is again proved by noticing that V is a corner in a self-similar element, namely

    gap> AssignGeneratorVariables(FRAlgebra(GaussianRationals,
         "V1=[[V1,V2],[V2,E(4)*V1]]",
         "V2=[[V1,-E(4)*V1+(1+E(4))*V2],[-E(4)*V1+(1+E(4))*V2,-V1]]"));
    gap> Activity(V1,3)=
         List([0..7],s->List([0..7],t->E(4)^ValuationInt(Binomial(s+t,s),2)));
    true

The LR decomposition of V=V1 can be checked as follows:

    gap> AssignGeneratorVariables(FRAlgebra(GaussianRationals,
         "L1=[[L1,0],[L3,L4]]",
         "L2=[[0,-E(4)*L2],[-L1+L3,-E(4)*L2-E(4)*L4]]:0",
         "L3=[[L1,L2],[-E(4)*L1+(1+E(4))*L3,L2+(1+E(4))*L4]]",
         "L4=[[L1,0],[(1-E(4))*L1+E(4)*L3,L4]]",
         "D1=[[D1,0],[0,D2]]",
         "D2=[[D3,0],[0,2*D1-D2+2*D3]]:-1+E(4)",
         "D3=[[D3,0],[0,-D2]]:-1+E(4)"));
    gap> L1*D1*TransposedFRElement(L1)=V1;
    true

The LR decomposition can also, in favourable situations, be discovered by FR through the command `LDUDecompositionFRElement` (6.1-10). This approach will be followed below.

For the next example, consider "Beeblebrox reduction" beta(4kpm1)=pm1,beta(2k)=0, and construct the nx n matrix Z(n) (named after Zaphod Beeblebrox) with coefficients Z_s,t=beta(s+t choose s). Then

\det(Z(n))=\prod_{k=1}^{n-1}g(k),

where g(sum a_i2^i)=(-1)^a_03^#{i:a_i=a_i+1=1}-#{i:a_i<> a_i+1=1} with all a_iin{0,1}.

This is again proved by noticing that Z is a corner in a self-similar element, namely

    gap> beta := n->Jacobi(-1,n)*(n mod 2);;
    gap> Zaphod := GuessVectorElement(List([0..7],i->List([0..7],j->beta(Binomial(i+j,j)))));
    <Linear element on alphabet Rationals^2 with 3-dimensional stateset>
    gap> Display(Zaphod);
     Rationals |    1     |    2     |
    -----------+----------+----------+
             1 |  1  0  0 |  0  1  0 |
               |  1  0  0 |  0  1  0 |
               |  1  0  0 |  0 -1  0 |
    -----------+----------+----------+
             2 |  0  0  1 |  0  0  0 |
               |  0  0 -1 |  0  0  0 |
               |  0  0  1 |  0  0  0 |
    -----------+----------+----------+
    Output:  1  1  1
    Initial state:  1  0  0
    gap> LDUDecompositionFRElement(guessZ);
    [ <Linear element on alphabet Rationals^2 with 4-dimensional stateset>,
      <Linear element on alphabet Rationals^2 with 2-dimensional stateset>,
      <Linear element on alphabet Rationals^2 with 4-dimensional stateset> ]
    gap> Display(last[2]);
     Rationals |    1    |    2    |
    -----------+---------+---------+
             1 |   1   0 |   0   0 |
               |   3   0 |   0   0 |
    -----------+---------+---------+
             2 |   0   0 |   0   1 |
               |   0   0 |   0 1/3 |
    -----------+---------+---------+
    Output:   1  -1
    Initial state:   1   0

and now the recursion read on this diagonal self-similar matrix gives immediately Bacher's recursion for det(Z(n)).

Bacher notes that the group generated by a=L_1,b=L_2/2,c=L_3,d=L_4 in the last example may be of interest. A quick check produces the following relations (slightly rewritten):

    gap> AssignGeneratorVariables(FRAlgebra(Rationals,
         "a=[[a,0],[c,d]]","b=[[-1/3*a,2*b],[1/3*c,d]]",
         "c=[[a,2*b],[c,d]]","d=[[a,0],[1/3*c,d]]"));
    gap> g := Group(List([a,b,c,d], x->Activity(x,3)));
    <matrix group with 4 generators>
    gap> FindShortGroupRelations(g,10);
    [ b*d^-1*c*a^-1,
      c*a^-1*c*a^-1,
      c*a*d^-1*a^-1*d^2*a^-1*b^-1,
      c*a*d^-1*c^-1*b*d*a^-1*b^-1,
      c*d*a^-2*d*a*d^-1*b^-1,
      c*a^2*d^-1*a^-2*d*a*d*a^-2*b^-1,
      d^2*a*d^-2*b^-1*c*a*d*a^-3,
      c*d*a*d^-2*a^-1*d*a*d*a^-2*b^-1 ]

Consider next the "triangular Beeblebrox matrix" with entries L_s,t=beta(s choose t). The recurrence is now given by

    gap> A := FRAlgebra(Rationals,
         "L1=[[L1,0],[L2,L3]]",
         "L2=[[L1,0],[L2,-L3]]",
         "L3=[[L1,0],[-L2,L3]]");
    <self-similar algebra on alphabet Rationals^2 with 3 generators>

and it is striking that A is a graded algebra, with L_1,L_2,L_3 homogeneous of degree 1, and each homogeneous component is 3-dimensional; all of L_1,L_2,L_3 are invertible (with inverses have degree -1), and generate a group that admits a faithful 3x 3 linear representation. As a final example, Bacher considers the "Jacobi character" chi(8ℤpm1)=1,chi(8ℤpm3)=-1,chi(2ℤ)=0, and the associated matrix J_s,t=chi(s+t choose s). He gives an easily-computed, but complicated formula for det(J(n)). We can recover this formula, as before, by "guessing" an LR decomposition for J, which is self-similar and convergent:

    gap> chi := function(x)
            if x mod 8 in [1,7] then return 1;
            elif x mod 8 in [3,5] then return -1;
            else return 0; fi;
         end;;
    gap> m := List([0..63],i->List([0..63],j->chi(Binomial(i+j,j))));;
    gap> J := GuessVectorElement(m,2);
    <Linear element on alphabet Rationals^2 with 9-dimensional stateset>
    gap> LDUDecompositionFRElement(J);
    [ <Linear element on alphabet Rationals^2 with 20-dimensional stateset>,
      <Linear element on alphabet Rationals^2 with 4-dimensional stateset>,
      <Linear element on alphabet Rationals^2 with 20-dimensional stateset> ]
    gap> time;
    26869
    gap> Display(last2[2]);
     Rationals |        1        |        2        |
    -----------+-----------------+-----------------+
             1 |   1   0   0   0 |   0   0   0   0 |
               |   0   0   1   0 |   0   0   0   0 |
               |   3   0   0   0 |   0   0   0   0 |
               |   0   0   3   0 |   0   0   0   0 |
    -----------+-----------------+-----------------+
             2 |   0   0   0   0 |   0   1   0   0 |
               |   0   0   0   0 |   0   0   0   1 |
               |   0   0   0   0 |   0 1/3   0   0 |
               |   0   0   0   0 |   0   0   0 1/3 |
    -----------+-----------------+-----------------+
    Output:   1  -1   3 -1/3
    Initial state:   1   0   0   0

#### 10.5 VH groups

[!!! introduction to do]

##### 10.5-1 VHStructure

`> VHStructure`( g ) | ( operation )

`> IsVHGroup`( g ) | ( filter )

Returns: A VH-structure for the group g.

A VH-structure on a group g is a partition of the generators in two sets V,H such that every relator of g is of the form vhv'h', and such that for all vin V,hin H there exist unique v'in V,h'in H such that vhv'h'=1.

The VH structure is stored as a record with fields `v,h` containing lists of generators, and integer matrices `transitions,output` such that `transitions[v][h']=v'` and `output[v][h']=h`.

The filter recognizes groups with a VH structure.

    true

##### 10.5-2 VerticalAction

`> VerticalAction`( g ) | ( attribute )

`> HorizontalAction`( g ) | ( attribute )

Returns: A homomorphism to an FR group.

A group with VH structure admits a vertical action of its subgroup < V>; this is the group generated by the automaton `MealyMachine(trans,out)`. The function returns the group homomorphism from the subgroup < V> to that FR group.

The horizontal action is that of the dual automaton (see `DualMachine` (5.2-3)).

    true

##### 10.5-3 VHGroup

`> VHGroup`( l1, l2, ... ) | ( function )

Returns: A new VH group.

This function constructs the VH group specified by the squares l1, l2, .... Each li is a list of length 4, of the form `[v,h,v',h']`. Here the entries are indices of vertical, respectively horizontal generators, if positive; and their inverses if negative.

    true

##### 10.5-4 IsIrreducibleVHGroup

`> IsIrreducibleVHGroup`( g ) | ( property )

Returns: Whether g is an irreducible lattice.

A VH group is irreducible if its projections on both trees is dense.

    true

##### 10.5-5 MaximalSimpleSubgroup

`> MaximalSimpleSubgroup`( g ) | ( property )

Returns: A maximal simple subgroup of g, if possible.

A VH group is never simple, but in favourable cases it admits a finite-index simple subgroup, see [BM97]. This function attempts to construct such a subgroup. It returns `fail` if no such subgroup can be found.

    true

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