Copyright: Microsoft Flight Simulator for Windows 98 Pilot's Help


accelerated stall

A stall induced by turns, pull-ups or other maneuvers that increase the load factor (G-load) on an airplane. The loads imposed by such maneuvers typically increase the speed at which a wing stalls, but they do not affect the angle of attack at which the stall occurs. That angle, the critical angle of attack, is always the same.


ace

A military pilot who has destroyed at least five enemy aircraft. The term originated in France during World War I, where it was given only to top pilots who had downed at least 10 aircraft. Later "ace" was commonly used for any pilot who claimed at least five aircraft. German aces in WWI were called Kanone ("cannons").


active runway

The runway currently in use for takeoffs and landings. Many large airports have more than one runway, usually arranged in a pattern to take advantage of prevailing winds. Some airports have parallel runways to accommodate more takeoffs and landings. Under specific conditions at airports with operating air traffic control towers, aircraft may also use intersecting runways for takeoffs and landings to expedite the traffic flow.


advection

The horizontal movement of air or atmospheric properties. In meteorology, this process is sometimes referred to as the horizontal component of convection.


advection fog

Fog resulting from the movement of warm, humid air over cooler ground or water. Advection fog is most common along coastal areas, although it often develops deep in continental areas. At sea it is called "sea fog." Advection fog deepens as wind speed increases up to about 15 knots. Stronger winds lift the fog into a layer of low stratus or stratocumulus.


advisory circulars (ACs)

In the U.S., non-regulatory information and procedures published by the FAA. Advisory circulars provide background information and more detail on subjects not completely outlined in the FARs or AIM. Advisory circulars are published by the Government Printing Office; many publishers also reprint important ACs as references for pilots. ACs are arranged in series, designated by a two- or three-digit number. Those in series 00 cover general subjects. ACs in the 10 series deal with procedural rules. ACs in the 20 series deal with aircraft; those in the 60 series cover pilots. ACs in the 70s series deal with airspace, while 90-series ACs cover air traffic and general operating rules. Issues related to air carriers (airlines) are covered in 120-series ACs.


aerobatics

Precision maneuvers such as barrel rolls, loops, hammerhead stalls, spins, and Cuban eights. Often performed at airshows and competitions, many of these maneuvers are also part of a military pilot's training and can be used in aerial combat. In fact, many basic aerobatic maneuvers evolved from air combat tactics invented during World War I.

"Aerobatics" is also defined in FAR 91.303, which describes restrictions on aerobatic flight. In that section, "aerobatic flight" means "any intentional maneuver involving an abrupt change in an aircraft's attitude, an abnormal attitude, or abnormal acceleration, not necessary for normal flight."


aerodynamics

The study of air in motion, in particular, the interactions between air and surfaces such as an aircraft wing. Aerodynamicists are scientists and engineers who specialize in aerodynamics. They use wind tunnels, computer models, and other tools to design and build aircraft and airfoils.


aeronaut

The pilot or navigator of an airship or balloon. Famous aeronauts include the Montgolfier brothers, inventors of the hot-air balloon; Henri Giffard, builder and pilot of the first powered dirigible; and August Piccard, who rode a balloon into the stratosphere.


aeronautics

The study or science of flight.


Aérospatiale

State-controlled French aircraft manufacturing company formed by the merger of Sud Aviation and Nord Aviation. Based in Toulouse, Aérospatiale has produced a wide range of helicopters and is the manufacturer of the supersonic Concorde airliner.


aerostats
aerostat

A lighter-than-air craft, such as a hot-air balloon or dirigible, that gets lift principally from buoyancy instead of generating lift with airfoils.


afterburner

Device that injects fuel into the exhaust stream of a turbojet engine. The combustion of the unburned oxygen from the exhaust and the jet fuel provides an extra boost at takeoff or during combat maneuvers. Also known as "reheat," especially in Great Britain.


AGL

Abbreviation for "above ground level." The heights of clouds in airport weather observations and forecasts is usually reported in AGL.


ailerons

Movable control surfaces, usually located near the wing tips, that control the rolling motion of an aircraft. The pilot deflects the ailerons by moving the control yoke or stick left and right. The ailerons move simultaneously in opposite directions. For example, when the pilot moves the yoke or stick left, the aileron on the left wing moves up, decreasing the lift on the left wing. At the same time, the right aileron moves down, increasing the lift on the right wing. The word derives from the French word aile, "wing."


AIM

Abbreviation for "Aeronautical Information Manual," an official source of information about navigational aids, airport operations, air traffic control procedures, and other subjects of importance to pilots and air traffic controllers. Published by the FAA, the AIM is available from many publishers in printed and electronic formats.


airfoil

A device that interacts with a moving stream of air to produce lift or thrust. Wings, propellers, tail surfaces, helicopter rotor blades, ailerons and other control surfaces, and turbine blades are all airfoils.


airline transport pilot certificate (ATP)

In the U.S., the pilot certificate required to act as pilot in command of an aircraft for an air carrier (airline) and for certain other operations. The ATP is the "Ph.D." of aviation. To be eligible for an ATP certificate, a pilot must be at least 23 years old and hold a current first class medical certificate. In general, an ATP applicant must also have at least 1500 hours of flight time, including minimum amounts of time on cross-country flights, flights at night, and instrument flight time.


air mass

In meteorology, an extensive body of air within which the conditions of temperature and moisture in a horizontal plane are essentially uniform.


air taxi

The preferred method for helicopter movement to and from the takeoff and landing area. Unless otherwise requested or instructed, during air taxi, pilots are expected to remain below 100 ft (30 m) above ground level. The use of the air taxi procedure enables the helicopter to proceed at the optimum airspeed and altitude, minimize rotor downwash, conserve fuel, and expedite movement between areas. The pilot is solely responsible for selecting a safe airspeed and for ensuring that the helicopter’s downwash does not injure people or damage property.


Air Traffic Control
air traffic control (ATC)

A network of control towers, approach and departure controls, and en route control centers designed to ensure the safe and efficient flow of air traffic. ATC's primary responsibility is to maintain separation between aircraft operating under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR), but ATC also provides services to aircraft operating under Visual Flight Rules (VFR).

ATC's functions are divided into several segments. Ground control supervises aircraft taxiing to and from runways. The tower or "local control" handles aircraft in the vicinity of an airport, clearing them for takeoff or landing. Departure and approach controls manage the airspace surrounding one or more airports, and en route centers control traffic between airports.


Airbus Industrie

Aircraft manufacturing consortium that includes France's Aérospatiale, Germany's Deutsche Airbus, British Aerospace, and CASA of Spain. Based in Toulouse, France, Airbus is the world's second-largest manufacturer of commercial airplanes (after Boeing). Its major products are the A310, A320, A321, A330, and A340 airliners.


aircraft

A flying machine. In the U.S., the FAA divides aircraft into classes and categories. With respect to the certification of aircraft, classes are broad groupings such as airplanes, rotorcraft, gliders, balloons, landplanes, and seaplanes. Categories define aircraft based on their intended use or operating limitations; for example, transport, normal, utility, acrobatic, limited, experimental, restricted, and provisional. With respect to the certification of pilots, class means a classification of aircraft with similar operating characteristics; for example, single engine, multiengine, land, water, and helicopter. Category means a broad classification of aircraft, such as airplane, rotorcraft, and glider.


airship

An engine-driven, lighter-than-air aircraft that can be steered.


airspace

The part of the atmosphere that lies above the surface and is under the jurisdiction of a nation or controlling authority. In the U.S., there are two categories of airspace—regulatory and nonregulatory. Within those two categories, there are four types of airspace—controlled, uncontrolled, special use, and other. Airspace is assigned to one of the types according to the density and complexity of the air traffic using the airspace, the types of operations conducted in that airspace, and other factors.


airspeed

The rate at which an aircraft moves through the surrounding air. Pilots use several types of airspeed during flight. For example, indicated airspeed (IAS) is the speed shown on the airspeed indicator (usually in knots). Pilots use IAS to control an aircraft and manage its performance. Calibrated airspeed (CAS) is IAS corrected for instrument and installation error. True airspeed (TAS) is IAS corrected for changes in atmospheric temperature and pressure. Pilots use TAS to solve navigation problems.

The aircraft's speed over the ground—ground speed—is TAS corrected for the effect of a headwind or tailwind.


airspeed indicator

The instrument that displays an aircraft's speed relative to the air in which it is moving. Most modern aircraft have airspeed indicators calibrated in knots or in Mach number.


Al Mooney

1906–1986. American airplane designer and manufacturer. Mooney began designing light airplanes in 1922. He worked for a number of aircraft companies around the U.S., including Bellanca and Culver Aircraft, before joining Dart Manufacturing to design the Dart monoplane. Mooney designed his M-18 Mite in 1946; that same year he and his brother Art founded Mooney Aircraft.


Alberto Santos-Dumont

1873–1932. Brazilian-born inventor of dirigibles and airplanes who made the first powered flight in Europe. Santos-Dumont made his first balloon flight early in 1898; later that year he became the first to fly a balloon equipped with an engine. In 1906 he flew his boxlike "14-bis" flying machine 722 ft (220 m) for the first powered flight outside the U.S. Santos-Dumont retired from aviation in 1910. In 1932, depressed over the military use of aircraft, he took his own life.


Alexander Graham Bell

1847–1922. Scottish-born American inventor. Bell's early experience in teaching the deaf led to an interest in communications. By 1875 he was an expert in electric wave transmission, and the following year he invented the telephone. In 1892 Bell became interested in aviation. He experimented with kites, photographed Samuel Langley's successful launch of the model Aerodrome, and later formed the Aerial Experiment Association with a group of young aviators that included Glenn Curtiss.


altimeter setting

The value to which the scale of a pressure altimeter is set so it reads true altitude at field elevation. The setting is usually given in inches of mercury (Hg) or millibars.


altocumulus

White or gray layers or patches of middle clouds, often with a waved appearance. Altocumulus clouds appear as rounded masses or rolls. They are composed mostly of liquid water droplets which may be supercooled. At subfreezing temperatures, altocumulus clouds may contain ice crystals.


altocumulus castellanus

A type of middle cloud that includes some vertically developed, cumuliform protuberances (some of which are taller than they are wide, as castles). These cumuliform sections give the cloud a crenellated or turreted appearance; especially evident when seen from the side. This cloud indicates instability and turbulence at the altitudes where it appears.


altostratus

Stratiform—flat, layered—clouds that form in the middle altitudes. The height of their bases ranges from 6,500–23,000 ft (1,980–7,000 m) in middle latitudes.


Amelia Earhart

1897–1937. American aviator, the first woman to fly solo nonstop across the Atlantic. Earhart was also the first woman to cross the U.S. nonstop (1932) and the first pilot to fly solo from Hawaii to California (1935). As an aeronautics adviser at Purdue University and an active proponent of women's aviation, she decided to attempt the first around-the-world flight made by a woman. Her second try in 1937 ended when she and navigator Fred Noonan disappeared over the Pacific.


anemometer

An instrument for measuring wind speed.


aneroid barometer

A barometer that operates on the principle of changing atmospheric pressure bending a metallic surface which, in turn, moves a pointer across a scale graduated in units of pressure.


angle of attack
angle of attack (AOA)

The angle between a wing or rotor and the oncoming airflow—the relative wind. It's important to understand that the angle of attack is related to the direction in which an aircraft is moving, not to the angle the wing or rotor makes with the horizon. In general, as angle of attack increases, so does the amount of lift a wing or rotor produces. However, at a specific point called the "critical angle of attack," the air flowing over a wing or rotor can no longer follow the airfoil's contour, and it becomes turbulent. The sudden loss of lift at this point is called a "stall."


angle of incidence

The angle at which a wing or propeller blade is mounted to the aircraft fuselage or to the propeller hub. The pilot cannot control the angle of incidence.


anticyclone

An area of high atmospheric pressure with a closed anticyclonic circulation. Viewed from above, the circulation is clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere, and undefined at the equator.


anti-torque pedals

In a helicopter, the flight controls that adjust the thrust produced by the tail rotor. Pilots use the anti-torque pedals to counteract the effects of torque caused by rotation of the main rotor and to trim the helicopter in flight. In a hover, the pilot uses the anti-torque pedals to turn the helicopter and to maintain heading—the direction in which the nose is pointed.

If you add power by increasing collective, you must add left pedal pressure to counteract the increased torque from the main rotor. If you reduce power by lowering the collective, apply right pedal pressure to compensate for decreased main rotor torque.

In a hover, applying left pedal turns the helicopter left; pressing right pedal turns the helicopter to the right.


anvil cloud

Popular name given to the top portion of a cumulonimbus (thunderstorm) cloud that has an anvil-like appearance.


approach lighting system
approach lighting system (ALS)

Color-coded or sequenced flashing lights that clearly define the approaches to a runway. The ALS helps pilots make the transition to visual references at the end of an instrument approach. It can also aid pilots operating at night under visual flight rules (VFR).


area forecast (FA)

In the U.S., a forecast of general weather conditions over an area the size of several states. It is used to forecast en route weather and to interpolate conditions at airports that do not issue terminal forecasts. FAs are issued three times a day by the National Aviation Weather Advisory Unit (NAWAU) in Kansas City, Mo., for each of six areas in the contiguous 48 states. Other offices issue reports for Alaska, Hawaii, and the Gulf of Mexico.

An area forecast contains a 12-hour specific forecast, followed by a 6-hour (18-hour in Alaska) categorical outlook, giving a total forecast period of 18 hours. The information in an FA includes several parts, including a synopsis, VFR clouds and weather, and other items of significance to VFR flight, including thunderstorms and strong winds, if forecast.


area rule

An aeronautical engineering principle that helps designers reduce drag at speeds near the speed of sound. Pinching in the fuselage where it meets the canopy, tail, or wings—creating the so-called Coke-bottle effect—cuts drag dramatically, reducing the amount of power an aircraft needs to reach supersonic speeds.


Aresti notation

A system of "aerocryptographics" for pilots and judges at aerobatic competitions and airshows. Named for Prince Aresti, an aerobatic pilot who devised the notation system and built a dictionary of maneuvers and sequences.


aspect ratio

The ratio between the length (span) and width (chord) of a wing. In general, a wing with a high aspect ratio is more efficient than a wing with a smaller aspect ratio.


attitude indicator
attitude indicator (artificial horizon)

The instrument that shows the aircraft's pitch and bank attitudes with respect to the ground. Pilots use the attitude indicator, sometimes called the "artificial horizon," when the true horizon isn't visible.


auto coordination
auto-coordination

In Flight Simulator, an option that automatically synchronizes the actions of the ailerons and rudder to maintain coordinated—balanced—flight, especially during turns. You can turn auto-coordination on or off by clicking the Aircraft Settings command on the Aircraft menu.


autogyro

An engine-powered aircraft that uses a propeller for forward motion and a large, free-rotating, horizontal rotor for lift. Also spelled "autogiro."


automatic direction finder
automatic direction finder (ADF)

A radio navigation instrument that receives signals from nondirectional radio beacons (NDBs) or AM radio stations. The needle on the ADF indicator always points toward the selected radio signal. A pilot can determine the magnetic bearing to the station by using the formula Relative Bearing + Magnetic Heading = Magnetic Bearing.


automatic pilot
automatic pilot (autopilot)

A device that automatically controls an aircraft. Similar in concept to the cruise control feature on an automobile, simple autopilots keep an airplane's wings level. More sophisticated autopilots can fly an airplane from immediately after takeoff all the way to its destination and then make an automatic landing. Autopilots use gyros and other sensors to keep track of the airplane's altitude, speed, and position, and then send signals to the appropriate controls to keep the airplane on course and at a specific altitude.


automatic terminal information service
Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)

A continuous-loop recording played over a specified frequency that gives pilots the current weather, runway or runways in use, and other information. ATIS is available at many airports with an operating control tower. The tape is updated hourly or whenever there is a significant change in weather or airport information. Each update is labeled with a letter of the alphabet, which is pronounced according to the ICAO standard. For example, the broadcast at 11:00 might be designated "Information Delta"; the next update would be designated "Information Echo." Pilots are expected to listen to the ATIS and indicate that they have received the current information before they make initial contact with air traffic controllers.


autorotation

In a helicopter, a descent during a simulated or actual engine failure. During an autorotation, the engine is disengaged from the main rotor. The main rotor turns because air flows up through the rotor disk as the helicopter descends. That is, the rotor windmills. The pilot must lower the collective to preserve main rotor RPM during the descent and then raise the collective near the ground to cushion the landing.


avionics

Derived from "aviation electronics," this term most commonly refers to the electronic communication, navigation, and flight-control equipment on board an aircraft.


axial-flow

Flow of air in a path parallel to the center. In an axial-flow turbine engine, air enters the front and follows a straight path through a series of turbine blades that compress the air before it enters the combustion chamber.


axis indicator

In Flight Simulator, a display that shows the current axis of the aircraft and gives a good indication of where the aircraft's center is pointing. You can turn the axis indicator on and off or change its shape by choosing View Options from the Views menu, and then choosing an Axis Indicator option.


balloon (verb)

To increase the pitch attitude and angle of attack too rapidly. Ballooning can lead to a low-altitude stall, a hard landing, or porpoising if a tricycle-gear airplane lands nose-wheel first.


bank

The angle of an airplane's wings with respect to horizon; rotation about an aircraft's longitudinal axis. Pilots control bank with the ailerons. Airplanes turn principally because banking the wings creates a horizontal component of lift. Pilots measure bank in degrees.


barnstormer

A pilot who tours the countryside, performing at exhibitions and taking passengers on sightseeing flights.


barometer

An instrument for measuring the pressure of the atmosphere. The two most common types are mercurial and aneroid.


barometric altimeter

A barometer that measures altitude by registering changes in atmospheric pressure as an aircraft climbs or descends. Large aircraft often are also equipped with a radio altimeter that measures the height of an aircraft by sending a radio beam to the ground and converting the time it takes to return into height above the surface. Radio altimeters are particularly useful during instrument approaches.


Bernoulli's principle

The physical law stating that the total energy of fluid in motion remains constant: If its speed increases, its pressure drops; if its speed decreases, its pressure increases. Wings are designed to exploit this relationship by accelerating air that passes over their curved upper surfaces, thereby decreasing its pressure. The difference between the lower pressure above a moving airfoil and the relatively higher pressure below, creates lift. This principle was first established by the Swiss scientist Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782). Although aeronautical engineers continue to debate the theory of how lift is created, Bernoulli's principle is still regarded as a fundamental explanation of how airfoils produce lift.


Bill Piper

1881–1970. American aircraft manufacturer who founded Piper Aircraft Corporation in 1937. Piper left his earlier career in oil exploration to invest in Taylor Brothers, builder of the E-2 Cub. He took over the company in 1932 and changed its name five years later. Piper Aircraft was for many years the world's leading producer of light aircraft.


bleed off

To decrease airspeed or altitude in a slow, carefully controlled manner.


blimp

A nonrigid airship generally shaped like a cigar. Internal gas pressure maintains both the blimp's buoyancy and its shape. There are many theories as to the term's origin—one of the most popular states that "blimp" is the sound made if you plunk the envelope with your finger.


Boeing

American aircraft company, founded by William Boeing in 1916, and today the world's largest manufacturer of commercial airplanes. Boeing also produces military aircraft and spacecraft, but it is best known for its "7" series of passenger jetliners—the 707, 727, 737, 747, 757, 767, and 777.


buffet

Vibration, usually affecting the horizontal stabilizer and elevator, caused by turbulent airflow. Buffet occurs as the wing approaches its critical angle of attack and the smooth flow of air over the top surface of the wing becomes turbulent, like water flowing over rocks. This turbulent air strikes the airplane's tail surfaces and induces a mild vibration that the pilot feels through the flight controls. Pilots use the onset of buffeting as one indication of an impending stall.


Buys Ballot's law

The law that states that if an observer in the Northern Hemisphere stands with his or her back to the wind, lower pressure is to the left.


calibrated airspeed (CAS)

Indicated airspeed (IAS) corrected for instrument and installation error. The position of the pitot tube and static ports, flap setting, and pitch attitude of an aircraft can affect the accuracy of the airspeed indicator—especially at the low end of an airplane's speed range. Aircraft operating handbooks and placards on the instrument panel often include a table to help pilots determine CAS.


canard

A horizontal surface, mounted ahead of an aircraft's main wing, that serves as a stabilizer to control pitch. Canards also reduce drag by cutting the down force generated by a conventional tail. Canards were first used in the pioneering days of aviation, and today their principle advantage in modern design is in preventing deep stalls. The canard is designed to stall before the main wing, lowering the angle of attack of the main wing before that wing can stall. The term "canard" is also used to describe any aircraft that flies tail-first.


canted gyroscope

A gyroscope within a flight instrument, usually the turn coordinator, with its rotational axis tilted or canted with respect to the aircraft's longitudinal axis. The tilted axis causes the gyro to respond to a banking or yawing motion.


cantilever wing

A wing attached to the fuselage without external struts or wire bracing.


carburetor

The part of a piston engine that mixes fuel and air, creating a combustible mixture that is ignited and burned in the cylinders. Filtered air enters the carburetor through a venturi, a narrow throat. As the air flows through the venturi, its velocity increases. The air pressure drops, creating a partial vacuum that draws in fuel through a needle valve. The fuel, atomized into tiny drops, mixes with the air, and the mixture flows into the intake manifold, a tube with branches that delivers the mixture to each cylinder.


certified flight instructor certificate

In the U.S., a certificate that allows a person to give instruction to applicants for other pilot certificates. To be eligible for a certified flight instructor (CFI) certificate, a person must be at least 18 years old and hold a current second class medical certificate and a commercial pilot certificate. The applicant must demonstrate proficiency in teaching and in demonstrating the maneuvers required for various pilot certificates. A CFI certificate must be renewed every 24 months.


category (aircraft)

In the U.S., with respect to the certification of aircraft, a grouping based on intended use or operating limitations. In the U.S., all aircraft are certified in a specific category. Examples include: transport, normal, utility, acrobatic, limited, restricted, and provisional. With respect to pilot certification, category means a broad classification of aircraft, such as airplane, rotorcraft, and glider.


ceiling

The height above the earth's surface of the lowest layer of clouds or obscuring phenomena that is reported as "broken" or "overcast." The height of the ceiling is one of the factors that determines whether flight under visual flight rules (VFR) is possible. In the United States, the ceiling generally must be at least 1,000 ft (305 m) for operations under VFR in controlled airspace.


ceilometer

A cloud height measuring system. It projects light on the cloud, detects the reflection by a photoelectric cell, and determines height by triangulation.


cell

Another name for a thunderstorm or cumulonimbus cloud. Pilots, air traffic controllers, and meteorologists often use this term to report areas of intense precipitation, lightning, or turbulence associated with a thunderstorm.


center of gravity (CG)

The point at which an airplane would balance if it were suspended by a cable. The CG is also the point at which the three axes—longitudinal, lateral, and vertical—of an airplane intersect and the point at which the four fundamental forces of flight—lift, weight, thrust, and drag—are assumed to act.

Pilots must ensure that the CG of a loaded aircraft falls within a specified range, called the "CG envelope." If the CG is outside the envelope, the aircraft may be difficult or impossible to control. To determine the position of the CG, divide total aircraft moment by total weight.


centrifugal flow

Flow of air outward from the center of rotation. Early turbine engines used the principle of centrifugal flow to compress air before it entered the combustion chamber.


Cessna Aircraft Company

American manufacturer of aircraft, founded in 1927 by Clyde Cessna. Production of the Cessna "A" series began in 1928, but the Great Depression brought business to a near standstill. However, the success of civil and military versions of the T-50 "Bamboo Bomber" created a wartime boom for Cessna that helped the company later produce more aircraft than any other manufacturer.


Charles A. Lindbergh

1902–1974. American aviator who was the first pilot to make a solo, nonstop flight across the Atlantic, for which he won the Orteig Prize and the Medal of Honor. Lindbergh started his career as a barnstormer and airmail pilot. After his historic flight, he and his wife Anne mapped air routes for Pan Am. Lindbergh eventually moved to Hawaii, where he wrote several books, including "The Spirit of St. Louis," which won a Pulitzer Prize in 1954.


chord

Also called the "chord line," an imaginary line drawn in cross-section from the leading edge to the trailing edge of a wing. The chord line is the reference used to determine the angle of attack and to draw lift, weight, and other vectors when analyzing a wing that is producing lift.


Capt. Chuck Yeager
Chuck Yeager

1923– . American Air Force officer and fighter pilot, test pilot, and the first person to fly faster than the speed of sound (1947). Yeager, who achieved the rank of brigadier general in 1968, received numerous decorations, including the Distinguished Service Medal, the Purple Heart, and the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Yeager made his most famous flight despite two broken ribs he sustained in a riding accident just days before the flight.


CIGAR check
CIGARS check

A memory aid to help pilots check critical items before takeoff. The letters of this acronym usually stand for:

C: Controls; check flight control freedom and correct movement.

I: Instruments; check flight and engine instruments for proper settings and indications.

G: Gas; check fuel quantity, and that the fuel tank selector is set to fullest tank or “Both.”

A: Altimeter; check altimeter setting and indication.

R: Runup; check engine performance at the recommended power setting.

S: Seatbelts; check that seat belts and shoulder harnesses are fastened and adjusted.

There are many variations of this basic memory aid. Some pilots add letters or substitute other items for the letters in this acronym.

The GUMPS check is a similar mnemonic to help pilots remember to check critical items before landing.


cirriform

Clouds composed mostly or entirely of small ice crystals, usually transparent and white; often producing halo phenomena not observed with other cloud forms. Cirriform clouds include cirrus, cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus clouds. The average height of cirriform clouds ranges upward from about 20,000 ft (6,096 m) in the middle latitudes.


cirrocumulus

A cirriform cloud appearing as a thin sheet of small white puffs resembling flakes or patches of cotton without shadows; sometimes confused with altocumulus.


cirrostratus

A cirriform cloud appearing as a whitish veil, usually fibrous, sometimes smooth. Cirrostratus clouds often produce halo phenomena and may totally cover the sky.


cirrus clouds

Feathery, high-altitude clouds composed of ice crystals. Cirrus clouds typically form in shallow scattered to broken layers on the equatorial side of the jet stream when high level moisture is available. They indicate very strong upper winds. Cirrus clouds do not in themselves constitute a hazard to aircraft, but they should alert pilots to the possibility of high-altitude turbulence and the approach of developing or intense weather systems.


Clarence "Kelly" Johnson

1910–1990. American airplane designer, head of Lockheed's Advanced Project Development Group for 30 years. Johnson, known as the "King of the Skunk Works" at Lockheed, made major contributions to the development of more than 40 airplane models, including the Electra, the Constellation, the U-2 spyplane, and the SR-71 Blackbird.


class (aircraft)

With respect to the certification of aircraft, a broad grouping of aircraft with similar characteristics of propulsion, flight, or landing. In the U.S., the FAA recognizes the following classes of aircraft: airplanes, rotorcraft, gliders, balloons, landplanes, and seaplanes.

With respect to the certification of pilots, a grouping of aircraft with similar operating characteristics; for example, single engine, multiengine, land, water, and helicopter.


class (pilot rating)

A classification of aircraft used on pilot certificates and ratings. In this respect, "class" means aircraft with similar operating characteristics; for example, single engine, multiengine, land, water, helicopter, and so forth.


Class A airspace

In the U.S., the airspace extending from 18,000 ft (5,486 m) above mean sea level up to and including flight level 600 (approximately 60,000 ft [18,288 m]). Formerly known as "positive control airspace (PCA)." All operations in Class A airspace are conducted according to instrument flight rules (IFR) under direct air traffic control. Class A airspace is not marked on aeronautical charts.


Class B airspace

In the U.S., the airspace around the busiest major terminals. Formerly called a "terminal control area (TCA)," Class B airspace is typically arranged in rings centered on the primary airport. The innermost ring usually extends from the surface up to 10,000 ft (3,050 m). The next rings each begin at different intermediate altitudes to allow non-airline traffic to transit the area beneath the Class B airspace and operate at satellite airports. This stair-step arrangement, drawn in cross-section, makes Class B airspace look like an inverted wedding cake.

All aircraft operating in Class B airspace must receive a clearance from air traffic control, regardless of current weather conditions. Aircraft must also have transponder with automatic altitude reporting capability. The boundaries of Class B airspace are marked with solid blue lines on U.S. aeronautical charts.


Class C airspace

In the U.S., the airspace around airports that have an operating air traffic control tower, radar approach control, and a high level of IFR operations or airline traffic. Class C airspace is typically designated around second-tier airports that are not as busy as major terminals. Many military airports are also surrounded by Class C airspace.

Class C airspace is typically arranged in two rings centered on the primary airport. The innermost ring has a typical diameter of 5 nm and generally extends from the surface up to 4,000 ft (1,220 m). The next ring begins at 5 nm from the center and extends to 10 nm. It begins at 1,200 ft (365 m) above the airport elevation and extends to 4,000 ft (1,220 m). Class C airspace also includes an outer area, which extends to 20 nm from the primary airport.

All aircraft operating in Class C airspace must establish communications with air traffic control, regardless of current weather conditions. Aircraft must also have transponder with automatic altitude reporting capability (Mode C). The boundaries of Class C airspace are marked with solid red lines on U.S. aeronautical charts.


Class D airspace

In the U.S., the airspace around an airport that has an operating air traffic control tower. Class D airspace is typically a circle centered on the airport, with a diameter of about 5 miles. It typically extends from the surface to 2,500 ft (762 m) above the airport elevation. Class D airspace often includes extensions to ensure that the controlled airspace encloses instrument approaches.

All aircraft operating in Class D airspace must establish communications with the air traffic control tower, regardless of current weather conditions. The boundaries of Class D airspace are marked with dashed blue lines on U.S. aeronautical charts.


Class E airspace

Generally, in the U.S., controlled airspace not designated as Class A, B, C, or D. Class E airspace includes low-altitude airways, extensions to Class D airspace, transition areas, and other airspace where air traffic control clearances are required when the ceiling and visibility do not meet the minimums for operations under visual flight rules (VFR).

Class E airspace typically begins at either 700 ft (213 m) or 1,200 ft (365 m) above the surface. It extends upward to the base of any overlying controlled airspace. When designated as an extension to Class D airspace, Class E airspace begins at the surface. Aircraft operating in Class E airspace must establish communications with the air traffic control tower only when operating under instrument flight rules (IFR). The boundaries of Class E airspace are marked with dashed red lines or with shaded red or blue lines on U.S. aeronautical charts.


Class G airspace

In the U.S., airspace not designated as Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace. Class G airspace typically begins at the surface and extends upward to either 700 ft (213 m) or 1,200 ft (365 m) above ground level (AGL). The boundaries of Class G airspace are not explicitly marked on U.S. aeronautical charts.


clear air turbulence (CAT)

Turbulence in an area where no clouds are present; in particular, turbulence at high altitude. CAT is also sometimes used to describe turbulence associated with wispy cirrus clouds. Many phenomena can generate CAT. It is often associated with the jet stream, especially in winter when temperature contrast is greatest between cold and warm air. CAT also occurs in wind shears associated with sharply curved contours of strong lows, troughs, and ridges aloft, mountain waves, and areas of strong cold or warm air advection.


clear ice

Relatively transparent ice with a homogeneous structure and few, small air spaces. Clear ice is usually associated with large, supercooled water drops typically found in cumuliform clouds. Clear ice forms when the liquid portion of a drop flows out over the aircraft surface before it freezes. Clear ice is hard, heavy, and difficult to remove.


cloud layer

In Flight Simulator, a user-specified weather option that includes the type of cloud, the heights of the bases and tops of the clouds, visibility, turbulence, and whether icing conditions exist. You select these options in the Advanced Weather dialog box. You can create two cloud layers in each weather area.


Clyde Cessna

1880–1954. American aviation pioneer and aircraft manufacturer. Inspired by the Moisant International Aviators' air circus, Cessna built his own monoplane and became a barnstormer. Later, he teamed up with Walter Beech and Lloyd Stearman in the Travel Air Manufacturing Company before forming the Cessna Aircraft Company in 1927. Cessna retired in 1935, handing the reins to his nephew, Dwane Wallace.


col

In meteorology, the neutral area between two highs and two lows or the intersection of a trough and ridge. The col on a pressure surface is analogous to a mountain pass on a topographic surface.


cold front

Any non-occluded front that moves in such a way that colder air replaces warmer air.


collective

On a helicopter, the lever to the left of the pilot’s seat that controls the lift produced by the main rotor. Pulling up on the collective increases the pitch of all of the main rotor blades. As the pitch of the blades increases, they produce more lift. Lowering the collective decreases the pitch of all the main rotor blades, decreasing the lift they produce. The throttle is mounted on the end of the collective.

A helicopter pilot can hold a constant altitude by adjusting the collective. The actual position of the collective required to maintain altitude depends on the helicopter’s weight, density altitude, airspeed, and other factors.

You must use the collective in conjunction with the cyclic and anti-torque pedals. Raising the collective increases torque from the main rotor, so you must add left pedal to keep the helicopter’s nose from rotating to the right. Lowering the collective decreases main rotor torque, so you must apply right pedal to keep the helicopter’s nose from rotating to the left. As you move the collective you must also use the cyclic to maintain the helicopter’s position.


COM

Abbreviation for "communication"; usually refers to radio communication. Aircraft communications radios are typically labeled "COM1," COM2," and so forth.


commercial pilot certificate

In the U.S., a pilot certificate that allows a person to act as pilot in command of an aircraft for compensation or hire. To be eligible for a commercial pilot certificate, a person must be at least 18 years old and hold a current second class medical certificate and a private pilot certificate. The applicant must have at least 250 hours of flight time, including at least 10 hours of instruction in an aircraft with a controllable pitch propeller, flaps, and retractable landing gear. The applicant also must have at least 50 hours of cross-country flight time and meet other experience and knowledge standards.


composites

Materials consisting of glass or carbon fibers set in a matrix of plastic or epoxy resin. Composites are increasingly used in the construction of modern aircraft because they are strong and lighter than metals. Many new kit-built and experimental aircraft are built primarily out of composites.


condensation

The change of water vapor to liquid water.


condensation trail

A cloud-like streamer that frequently forms behind aircraft flying in clear, cold, humid air. Condensation trails are also called "contrails" and "vapor trails."


contra-rotating
contra-rotating propellers

A pair of propellers, mounted one behind the other on the same engine, that rotate in opposite directions. Contra-rotating propellers make more efficient use of the power from the engine and counteract the gyroscopic and aerodynamic forces generated by a single large propeller turning in one direction. The principle was first applied to an Italian Macchi-Castoldi racing plane in 1933.


control yoke

The steering-wheel-like control that is connected to the ailerons and elevator. A pilot turns the yoke to move the ailerons and bank the wings. The pilot moves the yoke forward and back to move the elevator, which lowers and raises the nose. Some airplanes have a stick or "joystick" instead of a control yoke.


controlled airport

An airport with an operating control tower. You must obtain a clearance to take off or land at a controlled airport, and follow the tower controller's instructions while operating on or around a controlled airport. Controlled airports are usually located within Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace. The basic rules for operating at an airport with a control tower are contained in FARs 91.131, 91.130, and 91.129 and in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM).


controlled airspace

In the U.S., airspace in which operations may require a clearance from air traffic control (ATC), especially when a low ceiling or restricted visibility requires aircraft to operate under instrument flight rules (IFR). Controlled airspace is divided into several classes (A, B, C, D, E, and G) according to standards established by ICAO. Each class has different operating rules, including requirements for communications with ATC, specific clearances from ATC, pilot qualifications, aircraft equipment, maximum operating speeds, and minimum ceiling and visibility for operations under visual flight rules (VFR).


convection

In meteorology, atmospheric motions that are predominantly vertical, resulting in vertical transport and mixing of atmospheric properties.


convective clouds

Clouds exhibiting vertical development; cumuliform clouds. Convective clouds form in air that is moving primarily upward rather than horizontally.


coordinated flight

Flight, especially during turns, in which the horizontal and vertical forces at work on the airplane are in balance. The inclinometer, part of the turn coordinator or "needle and ball," shows the pilot whether the aircraft is in coordinated flight. When the ball moves to the inside of a turn, the airplane is "slipping"—the angle of bank is too steep for the rate of turn. If the ball moves to the outside of a turn, the airplane is "skidding"—the rate of turn is too great for the angle of bank. Uncoordinated flight can also occur during flight at low airspeed if the pilot does not apply enough rudder to compensate for the yaw force created by the propeller and engine at high power settings.


Coriolis force

A deflective force resulting from earth's rotation. In the northern hemisphere, the Coriolis force deflects moving air to the right. In the southern hemisphere, the force deflects moving air to the left. The force acts at a right angle to wind direction and is directly proportional to wind speed. That is, as wind speed increases, Coriolis force increases. At a given latitude, double the wind speed and you double the Coriolis force. Coriolis force also varies with latitude, from zero at the equator to a maximum at the poles. It influences wind direction everywhere except immediately at the equator; but its effects are most pronounced in middle and high latitudes.


Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin

1838–1917. German aeronaut, inventor, and army general who rode in observation balloons with Union forces during the American Civil War. In 1898 he founded an airship factory in Germany and constructed the first rigid type of airship. By 1910 his zeppelins carried passengers on excursions between German cities, and in 1912 the German navy ordered the first military zeppelin.


course deviation indicator
course deviation indicator (CDI)

A vertical needle on the omni-bearing indicator (OBI) that shows your deviation from the very high frequency omnidirectional range (VOR) radial set by the course selector. If the needle is to the right of center, the radial lies to the right of your current position.


course selector (OBS)

The knob or other control a pilot uses to select a VOR radial. Also known as the "omni bearing selector (OBS)."


crab angle

The angle between an aircraft's heading and ground track. This angle is determined by the crosswind component and the airspeed of the aircraft; the stronger the crosswind and the lower the airspeed, the larger the aircraft's crab angle.


critical angle of attack

The angle of attack at which a wing stalls. The critical angle of attack is determined by the airfoil design. A wing always stalls when it reaches its critical angle of attack, regardless of the aircraft's airspeed or attitude. Most general aviation aircraft have wings with a critical angle of attack of 18–20 degrees.


cruise speed

The average speed of an aircraft during straight and level flight at normal power settings.


cumuliform

A descriptive term applied to all convective clouds that develop vertically rather than into horizontally extended stratiform types. Cumuliform clouds develop in unstable air.


cumulonimbus clouds

Dense, vertical cloud formations that usually produce heavy rain, thunderstorms, or hailstorms. "Cumulus" is from the Latin for "heap"; "nimbus," for "rain cloud." Like all cumuliform clouds, cumulonimbus form in unstable air. A cumulonimbus cloud is heavy and dense. It can have massive towers, often with tops in the shape of an anvil or plume. Cumulonimbus clouds are often associated with virga, precipitation and low ragged clouds (scud), lightning, thunder, and sometimes hail. They occasionally produce a tornado or a waterspout. Cumulonimbus clouds can extend well into the stratosphere.


cumulonimbus mamma

A cumulonimbus cloud having hanging protuberances, like pouches, festoons, or udders, on the underside of the cloud. It is usually indicative of severe turbulence.


cumulus clouds

Fluffy, flat-based clouds, formed by rising, unstable air. "Cumulus" is from the Latin for "heap." Cumulus clouds are usually dense and well defined. They develop vertically in the form of rising mounds; the bulging upper part often resembles a cauliflower. Sunlit parts of these clouds are mostly brilliant white; their bases are relatively dark and nearly horizontal.


cyclic

On the helicopter, the stick that controls the aircraft’s attitude, direction of movement, and airspeed. The cyclic is linked mechanically to the main rotor system. As you move the cyclic, the entire rotor disk tilts.

Moving the cyclic forward tilts the rotor disk toward the front of the helicopter. The nose lowers and the helicopter moves forward. Moving the cyclic back causes the nose to rise and makes the helicopter move backward. Likewise, moving the cyclic left or right causes the helicopter to bank and turn, much like an airplane.

You should use the cyclic to turn a helicopter, except in a hover.

In a hover, moving the cyclic causes the helicopter to translate, or move across the ground, in the direction that the cyclic was moved and at a speed proportional to how far the cyclic was moved.


cyclone
cyclone (low)

An area of low atmospheric pressure with a closed, cyclonic circulation. Viewed from above, the circulation is counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere, and undefined at the equator. Because cyclonic circulation and relatively low atmospheric pressure usually coexist, in common practice the terms "cyclone" and "low" are used interchangeably. Also, because cyclones often are accompanied by inclement (sometimes destructive) weather, they are frequently referred to simply as storms. "Cyclone" is frequently misused to denote a tornado.


Daniel Bernoulli

1700–1782. Swiss scientist. His most important discovery, known as "Bernoulli's principle," states that the total energy of fluid in motion remains constant: if its speed increases, its pressure drops; if its speed decreases, its pressure increases. This principle was important to early scientists studying airflow, and their applications led to the design of wings capable of lifting heavier-than-air craft off the ground.


datum

An imaginary vertical plane or line used as a reference in weight-and-balance calculations; specifically the line from which all "arm" measurements are taken. The center of gravity (CG) is often referenced from the datum. The aircraft manufacturer sets the datum for a particular airplane. Most manufacturers set the datum at the position of the firewall separating the engine from the passenger compartment or at the tip of the propeller spinner.


dead reckoning
dead reckoning (ded reckoning)

The navigation of an airplane solely by computations based on airspeed, course, heading, wind direction and speed, ground speed, and elapsed time. The term derives from "deduced" reckoning. Also known as "ded reckoning."


decision height
decision height (DH)

The altitude at which, during an ILS or other precision landing approach, a pilot must decide whether to land or execute a missed approach. A typical ILS approach has a DH of 200 ft (60 m) above ground level.


density altitude

Pressure altitude corrected for variations from standard temperature. Density altitude measures the actual density of the air, and therefore is a critical factor in calculating aircraft performance. If the temperature is warmer than standard, density altitude is higher than pressure altitude, and vice versa. For example, assume an airport is 3,000 ft (914 m) above sea level and the altimeter setting is 29.92 (1013.2 millibars). If the temperature is 90 degrees F (32 degrees C), the density altitude is 5,592 ft (1,704 m). An airplane taking off from this airport performs as if it's at nearly 5,600 ft (1,705 m). The engine produces less power, the propeller is less efficient, and the wings create less lift. The airplane uses more runway to reach takeoff speed and climbs at a lower rate.


detonation

The sudden, explosive burning of the air/fuel mixture in the cylinders of a piston engine. Detonation usually occurs when the air/fuel mixture is too lean—when there is not enough fuel for the current weight of air entering the cylinder. Detonation imposes excessive loads on the pistons and other engine components. If not corrected by enriching the mixture, detonation causes engine damage and may lead to sudden engine failure.


dew

Water condensed onto grass and other objects near the ground when the temperature of those objects has fallen below the initial dew point of the surface air but is still above freezing.


dew point

The temperature to which air must be cooled to reach saturation—100 percent relative humidity. Weather reports usually include the air temperature and dew point temperature. A narrow "temperature/dew point spread" (less than 5 degrees F or 2.8 degrees C) indicates a strong likelihood of fog, clouds, or precipitation.


dihedral

The angle at which an aircraft's wings tilt upward from the fuselage forming a slight "V" shape as seen from head-on. Dihedral increases stability about the longitudinal or roll axis of an airplane. It tends to level the wings after an airplane is established in a shallow bank. Anhedral, tilting the wings downward, produces the same effect, but it is much less common.


dirigible
dirigibles

A general term for airships, or lighter-than-air powered aircraft. An engine and the ability to steer distinguishes airships from balloons. From the Latin dirigere, "to direct."


disk cache

An information storage area. Flight Simulator stores scenery information in a cache directory on your hard drive for quick access as you fly.


dissymmetry of lift

In a helicopter, a condition in which the main rotor does not produce lift equally across the entire rotor disk. Dissymmetry of lift is most apparent during a retreating blade stall, in which the left half of the rotor disk (as seen from above) is stalled due to the helicopter’s high forward speed, high gross weight, high density altitude, low rotor RPM, turbulence, abrupt use of controls, or steep turns. This effect is present only when the helicopter is in forward flight or hovering in a wind. Designers can compensate for dissymmetry of lift by allowing the blades to flap.


distance measuring equipment
distance measuring equipment (DME)

Avionics that determine and display distance in nautical miles. DME equipment, which operates in the UHF band, is usually installed at a VOR station. A complementary unit installed in the aircraft transmits timed pulses to the ground station, which replies. The unit in the aircraft converts the time between the pulses and the replies into distance and also derives ground speed and time to reach the station. The distance displayed by DME equipment is the "slant range" from the station—the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle formed by the aircraft's altitude and its distance from the station as measured along the ground. The difference between the slant-range and the aircraft's actual distance from the station is negligible when the aircraft is more than about 10 nm from the station and at a moderate altitude.


downdraft

A relative small-scale downward current of air often observed on the lee side of large objects that restrict the smooth flow of the air, or in precipitation in or near cumuliform clouds.


drag

The resistance of an object to movement through a fluid. With respect to aircraft, drag is one of the four fundamental forces in flight. It opposes thrust. There are two basic types of drag. Parasite drag is caused by friction. The airplane surface, antennas, landing gear, and other appendages all cause parasite drag, which increases in proportion to the square of the aircraft's velocity. Induced drag is a byproduct of lift. At the tip of a wing, air moves from the high-pressure area below the wing to the low-pressure area above. The energy used to create these vortices manifests itself as induced drag, which increases as airspeed drops.


drift

The displacement of an aircraft from its intended course caused by wind.


drizzle

A form of precipitation composed of very small water drops that appear to float with the air currents while falling in an irregular path. Drizzle differs from rain, which falls in a comparatively straight path, and fog droplets, which remain suspended in the air. In weather reports and forecasts, drizzle is indicated by the abbreviation "DZ." On weather charts in the U.S., drizzle is indicated by a comma (,).


dry adiabatic lapse rate

The rate of decrease of temperature with height when unsaturated air is lifted adiabatically (due to expansion as it is lifted to lower pressure).


effective translational lift
effective translational lift (ETL)

In a helicopter, a large increase in performance while in forward flight or when hovering in a wind. Air moving horizontally across the rotor disk helps the rotor produce more lift at a given power setting. This effect is generally seen at speeds of 10–15 knots. The transition to ETL is marked by a low-frequency vibration. The helicopter’s nose rises and the aircraft begins to climb vertically.


electronic flight instrument system (EFIS)

Computer-driven cockpit instruments and displays that replace electro-mechanical instruments in many modern flight decks. The EFIS can display basic flight information, engine status, moving maps, checklists, and other information.


elevator

A movable control surface located on the horizontal stabilizer of an aircraft's empennage, or tail. Although its name implies that the elevator makes the airplane climb or descend, it actually controls only the aircraft's pitch attitude—the angle of the nose above or below the horizon. The pilot moves the elevator by applying forward pressure on the control yoke or stick to decrease pitch attitude and by applying back pressure to increase the pitch attitude. On some aircraft, the entire horizontal stabilizer moves. This arrangement is often called a "stabilator" or "flying tail."


empennage

The tail assembly of an airplane. The empennage usually includes the fin (vertical stabilizer), rudder, horizontal stabilizer, and elevator.


Flight Watch
EFAS (Flight Watch)

Shorthand for Enroute Flight Advisory Service, a weather service provided in the U.S. by Flight Service Stations. EFAS disseminates weather reports and forecasts, particularly en route weather, and receives and distributes pilot reports (PIREPS). Flight Watch is available throughout the U.S. on frequency 122.0 from 5,000–17,500 ft (1500–5000 m) and on a variety of discreet frequencies for high-altitude traffic.


Ernst Mach

1838–1916. Austrian physicist and member of the Austrian Parliament. Mach's writings on empirical methodology and his theories on sensation and perception established the study of the philosophy of sciences. His work in ballistics and on measuring the speed of sound contributed greatly to the branch of aerodynamics concerned with supersonic flight.


Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA)

One of the largest aviation organizations in the world, the EAA was started in 1953 by Paul Poberezny and several other aviation enthusiasts as a club for people who build their own airplanes. The first fly-in convention that same year attracted about 40 people. Today the EAA numbers more than 150,000 members around the world and brings more than 800,000 people each year to its Oshkosh Fly-In, including homebuilders, restorers of classic and antique aircraft, and warbird enthusiasts.


Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

In the U.S., the federal government agency responsible for the regulation and promotion of aviation. The FAA regulates and certifies pilots, aircraft, airports, and airspace. It also manages the air traffic control system and supervises and inspects airlines, flight schools, flight instructors, maintenance technicians and facilities. The FAA was created in 1958 to supersede the Civil Aeronautics Authority (CAA). It operated under the name Federal Aviation Agency until 1966, when it became the Federal Aviation Administration, an organization within the Department of Transportation.


Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs)

In the U.S., the parts of the Code of Federal Regulations that pertain to the certification and regulation of pilots, flight schools and instructors, maintenance technicians and facilities, aircraft, air navigation, airspace, air traffic control, and other activities related to aviation and air commerce. Pilots must be familiar with and adhere to a variety of FARs. The most important parts of the FARs for day-to-day operations are: Part 1, Definitions and Abbreviations; Part 61, Certification: Pilots and Flight Instructors; and Part 91, General Operating and Flight Rules. Other parts pertain to commercial and airline operations, certificated flight schools, transportation of hazardous materials, certification standards for aircraft, and procedures for reporting accidents.


fixed base operator
fixed base operator (FBO)

At an airport, a person or an organization that sells fuel, sells or rents aircraft, and possibly provides flight instruction.


flaps

A hinged portion of an airplane's wing, generally on the trailing edge, that can be swung downward during takeoff and landing to increase the wings' lift and drag. When partially extended, a flap adds lift by increasing the camber, or curvature, of the wing. Because flaps extend into the oncoming air, they also increase drag, helping an aircraft descend steeply without building up speed. Modern aircraft use several types of flaps; the most common designs are plain, split, and Fowler. Often confused with ailerons, flaps are not primary control surfaces of an airplane.


flare

To level off and establish the correct landing attitude just above the runway prior to landing. A pilot flares by applying back pressure to the control yoke or stick, which raises the nose of the aircraft. When done properly, the flare is a smooth, continuous transition from a nose-low, descending flight path to a nose-high attitude that almost stops the aircraft's descent.


fractus

Clouds in the form of irregular shreds. They have a torn, clearly ragged appearance. The term applies only to stratus and cumulus cloud types such as cumulus fractus and stratus fractus.


freezing level

A level in the atmosphere at which the temperature is 32 degrees F (0 degrees C).


front

The boundary between two different air masses. More specifically, a surface, interface, or transition zone of discontinuity between two adjacent air masses of different densities.


frontal zone

A front or zone with a marked increase of density gradient. The term is used to describe an area of rapid transition of meteorological elements.


frontogenesis

The initial formation of a front or frontal zone.


frontolysis

The dissipation of a front.


fly-by-wire
fly-by-wire controls

Electronic flight control system in which there are no direct mechanical links between the controls in the cockpit and the aircraft's control surfaces. A computer detects movements of the flight controls, interprets them, and sends signals to move the rudder, ailerons, and elevators. Fly-by-wire systems were first used in fighter aircraft to make aircraft more maneuverable and ensure that the pilot could not exceed the design limitations of the aircraft. Today, large transports such as the Boeing 777 and several Airbus models include fly-by-wire systems.


Frank Whittle

1907–1996. English engineer and RAF officer who invented the turbojet aircraft engine. Whittle published his theory of jet propulsion in 1928, but the British Air Ministry didn't become interested in the idea until 1938. Whittle developed a working jet aircraft by 1941; however, it wasn't until 1944 that the first military jet aircraft, the Gloster Meteor, was put into service.


Flight Service Station (FSS)

A government facility that provides a variety of services to pilots. FSS personnel take weather observations, brief pilots, coordinate flight plans, and assist aircraft in distress. In the U.S., the FSS network includes one or more stations in each state. Each FSS typically has responsibility for a large geographic area. FSS specialists communicate with pilots over a network of remote transmitters and receivers. They also have direct telephone and computer connections to air traffic control facilities and search-and-rescue organizations.


fuel injection system

A set of controls, pumps, nozzles, and other components used in many piston engines to deliver fuel to the cylinders. The system squirts fuel directly into the cylinders or just ahead of the intake valve, where it mixes with air. Because a fuel injection system requires high-pressure pumps, an air/fuel control unit, fuel distributor, and discharge nozzles for each cylinder, it's generally more expensive than a carburetor. But a fuel injected engine is more efficient than a carburetor, and fuel injection is used on most large piston engines.


fully articulated rotor system

One of three main types of rotor systems used in modern helicopters. A fully articulated rotor system has three or more main rotor blades. The blades flap—move up and down—independently to compensate for dissymmetry of lift. They also feather—twist at the rotor hub—independently to adjust angle of attack as they rotate and lead and lag independently to compensate for the Coriolis force.

Fully articulated rotor systems are more expensive to manufacture and maintain than semi-rigid rotors, but they are less susceptible to low G conditions and mast bumping. However, they are more affected by ground resonance.


fuselage

The body of an airplane that holds the crew and passengers or cargo. From the French fuselé, for "spindle-shaped."


Gs

A measurement of the load factor, or apparent gravity, experienced by an aircraft during flight. One G represents the force of gravity exerted on a body at rest. When an aircraft climbs, turns, or changes speed, it experiences G forces. For example, a level turn with a 60-degree bank imposes a 2G load on an airplane and its occupants.


general aviation (GA)

In the U.S., a term applied to all aviation not related to the military or scheduled airline service. It includes flight training, charter flights, flying for pleasure, and business-related aviation. The term is also used to describe a broad class of aircraft not used by the military or scheduled airlines. "General aviation" is sometimes abbreviated "GA."


glide ratio

Ratio of horizontal distance traveled per unit of descent. For example, a sailplane with a 60:1 glide ratio travels 60 meters forward for every 1 meter it descends. A typical single-engine aircraft has a glide ratio of about 10:1.


glide slope

The electronic approach path projected as part of an Instrument Landing System (ILS). Glide slope transmitters, located near the end of a runway, send out radio signals to form the proper descent path to the runway. The angle of the glide slope is usually set about three degrees to the horizontal.


Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)

The local time at the Greenwich Observatory, which lies on the prime meridian or 0 degrees longitude. This time, now known officially as coordinated universal time (UTC), is used in air navigation to provide a standard for proposed departure and arrival times, weather observations and forecasts, and air traffic control functions. Also known as Zulu time, UTC is expressed in 24-hour format; for example, 6:00 P.M. is 1800 hours.


ground effect

A decrease in induced drag as an aircraft flies near the surface. In an airplane, the effect is caused when the ground interferes with the normal flow of air from below the wing to the low-pressure area above the wing. Ground effect is most apparent when an airplane’s height is about one-half wingspan or less above the surface. In practical terms, an airplane flying in ground effect stalls at lower airspeed than normal. Pilots can use ground effect to lift off from a soft or short field with a minimum ground roll, but they must accelerate to normal flying speed before climbing away from the surface.

In a helicopter, ground effect is defined as an increase in performance when the helicopter is within one rotor span of the ground. It is most apparent when the main rotor disk is within one-half the rotor span of the ground—that is, a 3-foott (1 m) hover in the Bell 206B JetRanger III. As in an airplane, ground effect occurs when the ground interferes with the vortices produced at the ends of the main airfoil—in this case, the rotor-tip vortices. The ground also reduces the acceleration of the induced flow—the air pulled down and through the rotor disk. The decreased downward velocity of the induced flow makes a given pitch angle more effective at producing lift. While in ground effect, the helicopter requires less power to hover.


ground fog

In the U.S., a fog that conceals less than 0.6 of the sky and is not contiguous with the base of clouds.


ground loop

An aggravated, uncontrolled, tight turn on the ground, usually during rollout after landing or while taxiing. A ground loop often involves a turn of more than 90 degrees and frequently results in one wing touching the ground. Aircraft with tailwheels (taildraggers) are most susceptible to this loss of control because the center of gravity in such aircraft lies behind the main landing gear.


ground speed

An aircraft's speed relative to the ground; an aircraft's true airspeed corrected for the effects of a headwind or tailwind. For example, if an aircraft is flying level at 120 knots with a 15-knot headwind, its ground speed is 105 knots.


GUMPS check

A memory aid to help pilots check critical items before landing. The letters of this acronym usually stand for:

G: Gas; check that fuel selector is set on fullest tank or “Both.”

U: Undercarriage (landing gear); check that landing gear is down and locked.

M: Mixture; check that mixture control is set to full rich.

P: Prop/Pumps; check that propeller control is set to full increase (maximum RPM); check that auxiliary fuel pump is on, if applicable.

S: Seatbelts; check that seat belts and shoulder harnesses are fastened and adjusted.

There are many variations of this basic memory aid. Some pilots add letters or substitute other items for the letters in this acronym.

The CIGAR check is a similar mnemonic to help pilots remember to check critical items before takeoff.


gust

A sudden brief increase in wind. In weather reports and forecasts, gusts are indicated by "G" followed by the two- or three-digit maximum speed and units, usually knots (KT). For example, "G25KT" indicates wind gusting to a maximum of 25 knots.


gyro

Short for gyroscope, an instrument based on a free-spinning wheel mounted within a ring. Gyros are used in instruments such as the attitude indicator, heading indicator, and turn coordinator. Because a spinning gyro maintains its orientation even when an airplane banks, climbs, or dives, it provides a stable reference to help pilots control an aircraft while flying in clouds or poor visibility.


gyroscopic precession

The reaction of a gyro when a force is applied to the spinning wheel. When force is applied to a gyro, the device reacts as if the force had been applied at a point 90 degrees from the point of actual application, in the direction of rotation. Precession affects propellers, which act like gyros, and gyro instruments. Its principle effect is on the heading indicator, which tends to drift over time.


hail

Frozen precipitation often associated with thunderstorms. Hail forms when supercooled water droplets begin to freeze. After a drop has frozen, other drops latch on and freeze to it. The hailstone grows—sometimes into a huge iceball. As hailstones fall through warming air, they begin to melt, and precipitation may reach the ground as either hail or rain. Rain at the surface does not mean the absence of hail aloft. You should anticipate possible hail with any thunderstorm, especially beneath the anvil of a large cumulonimbus. In weather reports and forecasts, hail is denoted by the abbreviation "GR," from the French grêle.


heading

The direction in which the aircraft is pointed, usually referenced to magnetic north. Because wind pushes an airplane in flight, heading does not necessarily correspond to the aircraft's path over the ground—its track. For example, if you want to fly due east with respect to the ground and the wind is blowing from the north, you must turn the aircraft slightly into the wind to correct for drift.


heading indicator

A gyro instrument that accurately and quickly shows changes in aircraft heading. Sometimes called the "directional gyro" or "DG." Because the heading indicator is driven by a gyro, it provides smooth, precise indication of heading or turns. The compass, which is subject to acceleration, deceleration, dip, and other errors, often oscillates, leads, or lags a turn. However, because gyros are affected by precession, the pilot must periodically set the heading indicator to correspond to the compass (unless the heading indicator is "slaved" electronically to the compass).


high

An area of high barometric pressure. Also called an anticyclone or high pressure system.


high-performance aircraft
high-performance airplane

As defined in FAR 61.31(e), an airplane that has more than 200 horsepower or that has retractable landing gear, flaps, and a controllable propeller. A private or commercial pilot may not act as pilot in command of a high-performance airplane unless a flight instructor has certified that the pilot is competent to fly such aircraft.


hood

A view-limiting device worn by pilots who are learning or practicing flight by instruments. The hood covers the upper portion of the pilot's field of vision. A safety pilot or instructor must always accompany a pilot who is using a hood.


horizontal situation indicator (HSI)

An instrument that combines the functions of the heading indicator and a VOR and ILS display. The HSI is usually mounted directly below the attitude indicator. It shows a “bird’s eye” view of the aircraft’s position relative to a selected VOR or ILS localizer course. Indicators on one or both sides of the display show the aircraft’s position relative to an ILS glide slope. In aircraft with electronic flight instruments, the pilot can often switch between several HSI display modes.


horizontal stabilizer

The horizontal surface of the tail, or empennage. The horizontal stabilizer is an airfoil that creates a down force on the tail to balance the upward force generated by the wing. It also incorporates the elevator, the control surface used to adjust the aircraft's pitch attitude. On some airplanes, the entire horizontal stabilizer acts as an elevator.


hover

In a helicopter, to remain stationary over a point on the ground at a constant altitude. A helicopter can hover in ground effect—within about one-half its rotor span of the ground—or out of ground effect. The helicopter’s ability to hover depends on its weight, power available, and the density altitude.


hover taxi

In a helicopter, to move short distances at airspeeds less than about 20 knots and at an altitude of 25 ft (8 m) or less.


hypersonic

Speeds at or above Mach 5—five times the speed of sound.


hypoxia

A condition in which an insufficient amount of oxygen reaches the tissues of the human body. The complete lack of oxygen, called anoxia, is fatal. Hypoxia is a serious hazard at high altitudes, particularly because its warning symptoms are varied and sometimes difficult to detect. Cabin pressurization or oxygen equipment is generally necessary for flying at altitudes at or above about 10,000 ft (3,048 m).


ICAO

Abbreviation for the International Civil Aviation Organization. ICAO, based in Montreal, sets international standards for airports, pilots, communications, and other matters related to air transportation.


Igor Sikorsky

1889–1972. Russian-born aircraft designer and manufacturer, considered "the father of the helicopter." Sikorsky built his first helicopter at age 20, and in 1913 he built the world's first four-engine airplane. After moving to the U.S. in 1919, he formed an aircraft company with other Russian émigrés. Sikorsky's flying boats, although technical successes, were a financial failure, so with support from United Air Transport, he returned to helicopters. In 1939 his VS-300 became the first practical helicopter.


Immelmann

An aerobatic maneuver in which an airplane reverses its direction of flight while gaining altitude. The maneuver begins with a half loop. Said to have been invented by WWI ace Max Immelmann. At the top of the loop, the pilot rolls the plane upright. In modern aerobatic competitions an Immelmann is called a "half loop, half roll."


indefinite ceiling

A ceiling classification that describes vertical visibility into a surface-based obscuration.


indicated airspeed (IAS)

The speed shown on the airspeed indicator, uncorrected for variations in atmospheric density, installation error, or instrument error. Except at sea level under standard atmospheric conditions, IAS does not correspond to the aircraft's actual speed through the surrounding air (that is, its true airspeed, or TAS).

By default, airspeed indicators in Microsoft Flight Simulator display indicated airspeed. You can change this setting to display true airspeed on the airspeed indicators. Click Preferences on the Options menu, and on the Instrument tab, clear the Display Indicated Airspeed option.


indicated altitude

Altitude read directly from the altimeter after it is set to the local barometric pressure corrected to sea level. Indicated altitude is not corrected for temperature. Pilots use indicated altitude to control their aircraft.


induced drag

The portion of total drag created by lift. Induced drag is created when high-pressure air below a wing or rotor swirls around the tip to the low-pressure area above. This motion creates vortices, which in effect siphon off the aircraft's energy. This lost energy is induced drag. Induced drag increases as airspeed decreases.


infrared

Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths beyond the red end of the visible color spectrum. Infrared photography, used in aerial surveillance, can penetrate haze and clouds to capture images of objects that are not visible to the naked eye.


instrument approach procedure (IAP)

An official procedure designed to guide aircraft to a runway when a visual descent isn't possible. IAPs describe the route and altitude aircraft are to fly as they transition from en route flight to landing. There are two basic types of instrument approach procedures—nonprecision and precision. Nonprecision approaches do not have an electronic glide slope to provide vertical guidance to landing aircraft. Examples of nonprecision approaches include VOR, NDB, localizer, and GPS approaches. Precision approaches have electronic glide slopes that provide precise vertical guidance. The most common precision approach is the ILS.


instrument flight rules (IFR)

In the U.S., regulations that apply to pilots, aircraft, and aircraft operations when weather conditions do not meet the criteria for visual flight, when aircraft are operated in Class A airspace—that is, at altitudes at and above 18,000 ft (5,486 m), or when pilots choose to operate in controlled airspace under those rules regardless of the prevailing weather. The rules establish minimum fuel reserves, equipment requirements and checks, and other operational standards for instrument flight.

The abbreviation IFR is sometimes used to describe weather that doesn't meet the minimums established for flight under visual flight rules (VFR). For example, if an air traffic controller alerts a pilot to nearby traffic and the pilot is flying in the clouds, the pilot may say, "I'm IFR," and ask for a change in heading or altitude to avoid a conflict. The proper abbreviation for describing those conditions is "IMC," for "instrument meteorological conditions."


instrument flight time

Flight time during which the pilot operates an aircraft solely by reference to instruments, under actual or simulated instrument flight conditions. Instrument flight time is not necessarily the total time during which an aircraft operates under instrument flight rules (IFR).


instrument landing system (ILS)

A system of navigation aids and approach lights that provide both horizontal and vertical guidance to aircraft approaching a runway. The ILS is the primary precision approach system in use today around the world. A typical ILS includes a localizer, a glide slope, and outer, middle, and inner marker beacons. The localizer transmits a directional signal that provides left/right guidance. The glide slope is an electronic glide path that defines the proper descent angle to the runway. Marker beacons indicate distance from the runway.


instrument meteorological conditions (IMC)

Weather conditions that require flight under instrument flight rules (IFR). In controlled airspace in the U.S., IMC conditions generally mean that the ceiling is less than 1,000 ft (305 m) and flight visibility is less than three mi (5 km).


instrument rating

A rating added to a pilot certificate that allows a pilot to act as pilot in command of an aircraft solely by reference to flight instruments. An instrument rating is required for operations in clouds or when the ceiling and visibility are less than required for flight under visual flight rules (VFR). A pilot also must hold an instrument rating to act as pilot in command of an aircraft in Class A airspace. In the U.S., Class A airspace begins at 18,000 ft (5,486 m) above mean sea level.


international terminal aerodrome forecast (TAF)

A concise statement of the expected meteorological conditions at an airport during a specified period (usually 24 hours). TAFs use the same codes employed in METAR weather reports. TAFs are scheduled four times daily for 24-hour periods beginning at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, and 1800Z. They contain the following information: type of report, location, issuance time, valid time, and forecast.


inversion

An increase in temperature with height. An inversion is the reverse of the normal decrease of temperature with height in the troposphere.


isobar

A line of equal or constant barometric pressure as shown on a weather chart.


isotherm

A line of equal or constant temperature as shown on a weather chart.


isogonic line

A line on a chart connecting points of equal magnetic variation.


jet stream

A quasi-horizontal stream of winds of 50 knots or more concentrated within a narrow band. The term usually applies to such winds embedded in the westerlies in the high troposphere.


katabatic wind

A wind blowing downslope.


knots

Nautical miles per hour. Abbreviation: kt, kts, or KTS. One nautical mile (nm or NM) is 6,076 ft (1,852 m). This distance is based on the length of one minute of arc of a great circle—an arc representing the shortest distance between two points on a globe. One knot equals about 1.15 statute miles per hour; therefore 100 knots equals about 115 mph (185 km/h), 150 knots equals about 172 mph (278 km/h), and 200 knots equals about 230 mph (370 km/h). All speeds filed on flight plans and for air traffic control purposes are in knots. In the U.S., light aircraft manufactured in 1976 and later have airspeed indicators marked in knots. Earlier models had airspeed indicators marked in statute miles per hour.

Note that "knots" by definition assumes "per hour." You should never state speed as "knots per hour."


joystick

Name sometimes given to the stick used to control the ailerons and elevators in some aircraft. The joystick is said to have been invented by French aviator Robert Esnault-Pelterie in 1907.

In Flight Simulator, "joystick" means an input device connected to a computer's game port and used to control the ailerons and elevator (and sometimes the rudder as well). A computer joystick may also incorporate buttons and switches to control the throttle, landing gear, flaps, and other functions.


landing gear

The wheels, struts, and other equipment that an aircraft uses to land or maneuver on the ground. Also known as the "undercarriage." The two most common types of landing gear are "taildragger" (sometimes known as “conventional” landing gear) and the "tricycle" arrangements. On a taildragger, the front of the aircraft is supported on two wheels while the tail rests on the ground on a skid or a tail wheel. With a tricycle landing gear, the aircraft sits level on the ground with one nose wheel and two wheels farther back on the aircraft. The main landing gear are those nearest the airplane's center of gravity. Main landing gear almost always come in pairs, and are designed to withstand a greater landing shock than the more fragile nose wheel or tail wheel.


lapse rate

The average decrease of temperature with altitude. In the lower level of the atmosphere, the standard lapse rate is 2 degrees C (3.6 degrees F) per 1,000 feet (305 m). Weather forecasters and pilots use the actual lapse rate to estimate the altitude at which the temperature and dew point will merge and lead to the formation of clouds or precipitation. An increase in temperature with altitude is an inversion.


large aircraft

In the U.S., an aircraft with a maximum certificated takeoff weight of more than 12,500 lbs (5,670 kg). To act as pilot in command of a large aircraft, a pilot must have a type rating for that aircraft.


laser

Acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. A laser is a device that produces an intense, focused beam of energy in the form of light rays.


lateral axis

One of the three axes of an aircraft, the lateral axis is defined by an imaginary line running from wingtip to wingtip. Movement about the lateral axis is called "pitch" and is controlled by the elevator.


leading-edge slots

Openings near the forward edge of a wing, designed to allow more air to flow over the top of a wing at high angles of attack, delaying the onset of a stall. Leading edge slats and flaps are other so-called high-lift devices.


left-turning tendency

The result of four forces that together cause a propeller-driven aircraft to yaw to the left. This tendency is most pronounced when the airplane is flying at low airspeed and a high angle of attack. The pilot compensates by applying and holding right rudder pressure.

The four forces are: the reactive force, the spiraling slipstream, gyroscopic precession, and "P factor." The reactive force is the opposite and equal force generated by the rotation of the propeller. This force induces a rolling motion about the airplane's longitudinal axis. The spiraling slipstream is the rotating column of air produced by the propeller. It swirls around the fuselage and strikes the left side of the vertical stabilizer, producing a left yaw. Gyroscopic precession occurs when the nose of the airplane rises or falls. This change in pitch attitude applies a force to the spinning mass of the propeller which is 90 degrees ahead of the point where the force was applied. "P factor," or asymmetric propeller loading, induces a left yawing motion because the downward moving propeller blade has a higher angle of attack and produces more thrust than the upward moving blade.


lenticular cloud (lenticularis)

A species of cloud whose elements have the form of more or less isolated, generally smooth lenses or almonds. These clouds appear most often in formations of orographic origin, the result of lee waves, in which case they remain nearly stationary with respect to the terrain (standing cloud), but they also occur in regions without marked orography.


Leonardo da Vinci

1452–1519. Italian artist and scientist, a man of towering intellect and a leader in the transition from the medieval to the modern European consciousness. Da Vinci's scientific interests included anatomy, botany, geology, optics, and mechanics. His designs for human-powered flying machines verged on the fanciful, but his sketches for a hypothetical parachute were scientifically sound.


lift

The upward force produced by an airfoil such as a wing interacting with the air. Lift acts at right angles to the relative wind or the aircraft's flight path. Lift, one of the four fundamental forces in flight, is opposed by weight.


light aircraft

Generally speaking, small single- and twin-engine aircraft. More precisely, in the U.S., aircraft with a maximum certificated takeoff weight of 12,500 lbs (5,760 kg) or less.


light gun signals

Colored lights that control tower operators use to issue instructions to aircraft without radios or aircraft that have a radio failure. The red, green, and white lights convey such messages as "cleared to land," "stop," and "exercise extreme caution." The meaning of all the signals is defined in FAR 91.125.


light icing

Ice, regardless of type, that accumulates slowly. Anti-icing or de-icing equipment prevents accumulations. Light icing may become hazardous to aircraft without anti-icing or de-icing equipment if conditions persist for an hour or more.


lightning

Short, intense electrical discharges generated by thunderstorms. Lightning is rarely a great hazard to most aircraft, but it may damage electronic equipment. Lightning can also temporarily blind a pilot.


light turbulence

In aviation weather reports and pilot reports, turbulence that momentarily causes slight, erratic changes in altitude, attitude, or both. When light turbulence produces rhythmic bumpiness without appreciable changes in altitude or attitude, it is called "chop." In light turbulence, occupants may feel a slight strain against seat belts or shoulder straps. Unsecured objects may be displaced slightly. On large aircraft, food service may be conducted and walking is possible with little or no difficulty.


load factor

The ratio between the total load supported by an aircraft's structure and the actual weight of the aircraft and its contents; also known as "Gs." In steady-state flight, the load factor is 1. When an aircraft turns or pulls up out of a dive, load factor increases. For example, an airplane in a level turn at a bank angle of 60 degrees experiences a load factor of 2. In such a turn, the aircraft's structure must support twice the airplane's weight, and the pilot must increase the aircraft's pitch attitude to produce more lift.


local weather area

In Flight Simulator, a user-defined region with similar weather characteristics. You can create two local weather areas, each with a different type of weather. Unless you specifically create a local weather area, all weather characteristics are assigned to the global weather area.


localizer

The component of the instrument landing system (ILS) that provides left-right guidance to a pilot approaching the runway. The localizer is a highly directional radio signal transmitted on one of 40 channels between 108.10–111.95 MHz. The beam is funnel-shaped. It is typically 10 degrees wide 18 nm from the runway, narrowing to just 700 ft (213 m) wide at the threshold.


Lomcovàk

A tumbling aerobatic maneuver. First conceived of by Ladislav Bezàk, a former world champion aerobatic pilot, the maneuver has at least five variations—all initiated from a near vertical attitude and flown under negative G forces. Although lomcovàk is commonly believed to be the Czech or Polish word for "headache," it apparently comes from a Slovak slang term for a large, stiff drink.


longitudinal axis

An imaginary line running from the nose to the tail of an aircraft; one of the three axes of an aircraft. Rotation about the longitudinal axis is called "roll" and is controlled with the ailerons.


loop

An aerobatic maneuver in which an aircraft flies in a complete vertical circle. An outside loop, begun at the top of the circle, is considerably more difficult to perform, because the pilot encounters negative G-forces throughout the maneuver.


low

An area of low barometric pressure, with its attendant system of winds. Also called a barometric depression or cyclone.


low G condition

In a helicopter, a situation that develops whenever there is less than 1G (the weight of the helicopter) on the rotor disk. The pilot can induce a low G situation by making abrupt cyclic control inputs, flying through turbulence, or when pushing over from a steep climb. In this situation, the nose drops and the aircraft may roll rapidly to the right because the tail rotor is above the main rotor disk and producing thrust to the right. The main rotor may hit the tail boom, and helicopters with semi-rigid rotor systems may experience mast bumping. Either effect may cause loss of the main and tail rotors.

To recover from a low G situation before you lose control, gently apply aft cyclic to raise the nose and add Gs to the rotor disk. Apply left cyclic to counteract the tendency to roll to the right.


Mach 1

The speed of sound. Mach 1 varies according to altitude and temperature: at sea level it is about 762 mph (1,226 km/h); at the bottom of the troposphere, Mach 1 is about 660 mph (1,062 km/h). Above the tropopause, at about 36,000 ft (11,000 m), the speed of sound remains constant.


Mach number

The ratio of an aircraft's speed to the speed of sound. The speed of sound varies with the density of the medium carrying the sound waves. For example, sound travels faster through iron or water than through air. Because the density of air decreases with altitude, the speed of sound also decreases. Sound travels at approximately 1,226 km/h (762 mph) at sea level, 1,138 km/h (707 mph) at 20,000 ft (6096 m), and 664 mph (1,068 km/h) at 35,000 ft (10,668 m). Named for Ernst Mach, Austrian physicist.


magnetic compass

A device for determining direction relative to the earth's magnetic field.


magnetic course

A line drawn on a chart between two points with its direction referenced to the earth's magnetic north pole.


magnetic heading

The direction in which an aircraft is pointed, measured relative to the magnetic north pole. The magnetic heading is displayed on the compass. A pilot determines the magnetic heading to fly by compensating for the difference between true north and magnetic north and then adjusting the resulting magnetic course to compensate for wind. If the wind is blowing directly along the intended course, the magnetic heading equals the magnetic course. If a crosswind component is present, however, a pilot must turn the aircraft slightly into the wind to compensate. Under these conditions, the airplane's track over the ground is slightly different from the direction in which the nose is pointing.


magnetic variation

The angle between "true north" and "magnetic north"; that is, the angle between the geographic north pole and the magnetic north pole as measured from a point on the earth. To determine the magnetic course between two points on the earth's surface, a pilot must determine the true course—the angle formed between the line drawn on a chart and lines of longitude—and then add or subtract the variation at points along that course.


magneto

A device that creates an electric current by rotating a magnet. In aircraft engines, the crankshaft turns the magnetos, which provide the electrical energy to fire the spark plugs. This arrangement ensures that the spark plugs fire even if the aircraft's battery and electrical system fail. Certificated aircraft engines typically have two sets of magnetos for additional redundancy.


maneuvering speed
maneuvering speed (Va)

The maximum speed at which the pilot can use full, abrupt control movement without creating excessive G forces that could damage the aircraft; the maximum speed at which you can safely stall an aircraft. Pilots also use maneuvering speed when flying through turbulent air.

Abbreviated Va, maneuvering speed is not marked on the airspeed indicator.


manifold pressure gauge

An instrument that measures the air pressure in the intake manifold of a piston engine. Usually calibrated in inches of mercury, this instrument (really a barometer) is used in combination with the tachometer to set engine power. Most small training aircraft have only a tachometer. Aircraft with larger engines and aircraft with constant-speed propellers usually have manifold pressure gauges.


marker beacons

Low-power radio beacons that identify specific positions along an instrument approach, usually an ILS. A typical ILS has at least two marker beacons. The outer marker (OM) normally indicates the point at which an aircraft intercepts the electronic glide slope. It transmits three dashes in Morse Code. On the instrument panel, the OM is indicated by a blue light. The middle marker (MM) indicates a position about 3,500 ft (1,067 m) from the runway threshold. It also marks the point where an aircraft is about 200 ft (61 m) above the elevation of the runway touchdown zone. The middle marker transmits a "dot-dash-dot-dash" code and is indicated in the cockpit by an amber light.

Some ILS's also have an inner marker (IM), which indicates the point at which an airplane flying along the proper glideslope reaches the decision height. The inner marker transmits a rapid "dot-dot-dot-dot" code and is indicated in the cockpit by a white light.


Max Immelmann

1890–1916. One of Germany's first great fighter pilots, credited (probably erroneously) as the inventor of the "Immelmann" maneuver. Nicknamed "the Eagle of Lille," Immelmann learned the basics of air combat from Oswald Boelcke, with whom he often flew missions. Among the numerous decorations Immelmann earned before being killed in action was the coveted Blue Max.


MDA (minimum descent altitude)

The lowest altitude to which descent is authorized on final approach or during circle-to-land maneuvering during a non-precision instrument approach. You can descend from the MDA only when you are in a position to complete a normal approach and landing by visual reference to the runway environment.


mean sea level (MSL)

The average level of the earth's oceans; used as reference for true altitude—the vertical distance of an aircraft above sea level. Airport, terrain, and obstacle elevations shown on aeronautical charts are expressed as true altitude.


measured ceiling

A ceiling classification applied when the ceiling value has been determined by instruments or the known heights of unobscured portions of objects other than natural landmarks.


medical certificate

In the U.S., a certificate showing that a pilot, required flight crewmember, or air traffic controller meets a set of physical and mental standards established for the safe operation of an aircraft or the performance of other duties. The FAA issues third, second, and first class medical certificates. The certification standards are more restrictive with each class. Student, recreational, and private pilots are required to hold at least a third class medical certificate, which is valid for 24 or 36 months. A second class medical is required for certain commercial operations. It is valid for 12 months for those operations and for 24 months for non-commercial operations. Airline pilots require a first class medical, which is valid for 6 months for air carrier operations, 24 months for certain commercial operations, and 24 months for non-commercial operations.


METAR

Abbreviation for Aviation Routine Weather Report, the standard report for hourly weather observations taken at airports. The U.S. recently adopted the METAR to replace SA reports. A METAR includes the following information: type of report; station designator; time of report; wind; visibility; weather and obstructions to visibility; sky condition; temperature and dew point; altimeter setting; and remarks.


microburst

Violent localized winds often associated with thunderstorms. In a microburst, strong vertical downdrafts spill out of a thunderstorm and then spread along the ground, like water poured from a bucket. These downdrafts can exceed 6,000 feet per minute (1,829 m/sec) and create strong wind shears—areas where the speed and direction of the wind change abruptly. An airplane flying through a microburst and its associated wind shear experiences rapid changes in airspeed and can sink to the ground if caught in a strong downdraft.


millibar (mb)

An internationally used unit of pressure equal to 1,000 dynes per square centimeter. It is convenient for reporting atmospheric pressure.


mixed ice

A combination of clear and rime ice. Mixed ice forms when water drops vary in size or when liquid drops are intermingled with snow or ice particles. It can form rapidly. Ice particles become imbedded in clear ice, building a rough accumulation sometimes in a mushroom shape on the leading edges of an aircraft's surfaces.


mixture control

A device for controlling the ratio between fuel and air entering an engine's carburetor or fuel injection system. In most aircraft, the mixture control is a push-pull knob or lever marked in red usually located to the right of the throttle.

Because aircraft engines operate over a wide range of altitudes, the pilot must adjust the mixture to produce the most efficient fuel/air mixture as an airplane climbs into less dense air or descends into more dense air. A mixture that is too rich contains too much fuel for the existing conditions and causes the engine to run rough and lose power. A mixture that is too lean can cause an engine to overheat or cause detonation, the sudden, explosive combustion of fuel within the cylinders.


moderate icing

Ice, regardless of type, that accumulates at a rate that requires the use of anti-icing or de-icing equipment. Aircraft without such equipment must divert immediately.


moderate turbulence

In aviation weather reports and pilot reports, turbulence that causes changes in altitude or attitude and small variations in airspeed. The aircraft remains in positive control at all times, Occupants feel definite strains against seat belts or shoulder straps. Unsecured objects are dislodged. On large aircraft, food service and walking are difficult.


mmo

Abbreviation for Mach maximum operating speed; the maximum airspeed, indicated in Mach number, at which an aircraft can be operated safely. The actual value of mmo varies with atmospheric pressure, temperature, and other factors.


mountain waves

A standing wave or lee wave to the lee of a mountain barrier. Waves created by massive amounts of air pushed over mountain ranges such as the Rockies and the Sierra Nevada in the U.S. Intense mountain waves are typically produced when a strong, turbulent jet stream flows directly across a mountain ridge. Sailplane pilots often use mountain waves to soar to high altitudes—50,000 ft (15,240 m) or more.


NASA

Abbreviation for National Aeronautics and Space Administration, a civilian agency of the U.S. government created in 1958 with the responsibility for all nonmilitary developments in aeronautics and space flight. NASA replaced the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.


National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)

In the U.S. the government agency that investigates aircraft accidents and determines their probable cause. The NTSB is independent of the FAA, which regulates aviation. The FAA participates in accident investigations and responds to recommendations made by the NTSB when the board determines that new regulations, procedures, or equipment would help prevent future accidents.


nautical mile (nm)

A distance of about 6,076 ft (1852 m). The nautical mile is based on the length of one minute of arc of a great circle. In aviation, distances and speeds are measured in nautical miles (nm) and nautical miles per hour (knots).


NAV

Abbreviation for navigational; usually refers to a navigational radio, as in "NAV 1" or "NAV 2."


Nav
NAV/COM

A radio that combines the functions of communication and navigational radios.


navigation lights

The basic anti-collision light system required on all aircraft certified to fly at night. The system includes a red light on the left wingtip, a green light on the right wingtip, and a white light on the tail. These lights tell other aircraft which direction an aircraft is flying when only the lights can be seen. Navigation lights must be turned on between sunset and sunrise.


nimbostratus

A principal cloud type, gray colored, often dark. Its diffuse appearance is caused by more or less continuously falling rain or snow, which in most cases reaches the ground. A nimbostratus cloud is thick enough throughout to blot out the sun.


Ninety-Nines
Ninety-Nines (99s)

Association of women fliers formed in 1929 with 99 charter members, including Amelia Earhart, Jackie Cochran, Louise Thaden, and Amy Johnson. The Ninety-Nines were responsible for the acceptance and respect accorded women contestants in the air races of the 1930s. Today the Ninety-Nines is a worldwide organization with thousands of members.


nondirectional radio beacon (NDB)

A radio beacon that transmits nondirectional signals in the low or medium frequency band (190–535 kHz); today used primarily for NDB nonprecision approaches and in conjunction with the outer marker component of an ILS. An automatic direction finder (ADF) points to these beacons.


nose over

To rapidly lower the nose relative to the horizon; decrease pitch. On the ground, a nose over—an aircraft tipping forward or doing a somersault, can result when the nose wheel digs into a soft surface or when a tailwheel-equipped airplane decelerates too rapidly.


obscuration

In weather reports, denotes a sky hidden by surface-based phenomena and vertical visibility restricted overhead.


occluded front
occluded front (occlusion)

A composite of two fronts as a cold front overtakes a warm front or a quasi-stationary front.


oleo-pneumatic

A hydraulic-air system usually incorporated into aircraft landing-gear systems. Oleo-pneumatic shock absorbers dissipate the shock of landing by forcing fluid through a restrictor valve from the upper chamber of the strut to the lower chamber.


omni-bearing indicator (OBI)

The instrument that displays information about an aircraft's position relative to a VOR station. The OBI includes a needle, or course deviation indicator (CDI) to show the aircraft's position relative to a selected course or "radial," and a TO-FROM-OFF indicator that shows the aircraft's position relative to the VOR station. A glide-slope needle is also included in some OBI. Each OBI is typically connected to a navigation receiver (NAV 1 or NAV 2).


ornithopters
ornithopter

Hypothetical human-powered flying machine based on flapping wings. Leonardo da Vinci was perhaps the first to attempt a scientific design of ornithopters, but the idea reaches back at least to the Greek legend of Daedalus and Icarus. No actually working ornithopter has ever been built.


orographic

Of, pertaining to, or caused by mountains as in orographic clouds, orographic lift, or orographic precipitation.


Otto Lilienthal

1848–1896. German aeronautical engineer and hang glider pilot whose experiments with stability, lift, and control were highly influential to such later aviators as the Wright brothers. Lilienthal applied his studies of bird flight and aerodynamic theory to the design, construction, and experimental flight of 18 gliders. The first man to be photographed in a glider, Lilienthal was killed when one of his craft crashed in 1896.


ozone

An unstable form of oxygen. The heaviest concentrations of ozone are in the stratosphere. Ozone is corrosive to some metals and it absorbs most ultraviolet solar radiation.


PAPI (precision approach path indicator)

A system of lights to help pilots determine if they’re on the proper descent path to a runway. A PAPI system is similar to a VASI, but it uses one row of four lights. If you are on the proper glide path (usually 3 degrees), you see two white lights on the left side of the PAPI light bar and two red lights on the right side. If you are slightly above the proper glide path, you see three white lights on the left and one red light on the right. If you are well above the proper glide path, you see four white lights. If you are slightly below the proper glide path, you see one white light on the left and three red lights to the right. If you are well below the proper glide path, you see four red lights.


parasite drag

Resistance to motion through the air composed of form drag (due to landing gear, radio antennas, shape of the wings, and so on), skin friction, and airflow interference between aircraft components (such as the junction of the wings and fuselage, or fuselage and tail). Parasite drag increases as the square of velocity. It is one component of total drag, the force that opposes thrust. The other component is induced drag, a byproduct of lift.


partial obscuration

A designation of sky cover when part of the sky is hidden by surface-based obscuring phenomena.


Patty Wagstaff

1951– . American aerobatic pilot. Wagstaff was the 1993 International Aerobatic Club Champion and a three-time U.S. National Aerobatic Champion. A member of the U.S. Aerobatic Team, she is also an aerobatics coach, an aerial competition judge, and a movie stunt pilot.


Paul Poberezny

American fighter pilot and flight instructor in WWII and Korea, and founder and chairman of the Experimental Aircraft Association. Poberezny organized the EAA and its first fly-in in 1953, from which he became a leading figure in representing the interests of sport-flying enthusiasts and amateur aircraft builders worldwide. Involved in aviation for most of his life, Poberezny has designed more than 15 airplanes and has served as editor for a number of aviation publications. His son, Tom, is the current president of the EAA.


Percy Pilcher

1866–1899. Scottish marine engineer whose experiments with gliders between 1895 and 1899 produced a number of design advances. Pilcher was developing a light engine for use with one of his gliders but did not complete the project. Like his mentor, Otto Lilienthal, Pilcher died when one of his gliders crashed.


performance booster

Software to enhance performance of CD-ROM versions of Flight Simulator or scenery add-ons. The performance booster monitors your aircraft's position and automatically loads scenery from the CD-ROM drive to a disk cache on your hard drive.


phonetic alphabet

A spoken alphabet endorsed by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and used by pilots and air traffic controllers to avoid confusion during radio communications. Instead of saying "a," "b," "c," pilots say "alpha," "bravo," "charlie," and so on.


pilot certificate

In the U.S., a pilot license. The FAA issues several types of pilot certificates, including student, recreational, private, commercial, certified flight instructor, and airline transport pilot certificates. Pilot certificates define broad privileges and limitations. Ratings on those certificates (single-engine land, instrument, multi-engine land, helicopter, and so on) further specify the classes of aircraft that a pilot may fly and whether the pilot is allowed to act as pilot in command when the weather does not meet the minimums specified for flight under visual flight rules (VFR).


pilot in command
pilot in command (PIC)

The pilot responsible for the operation and safety of an aircraft during flight time. For purposes of logging flight time, a pilot holding a recreational, private, or commercial pilot certificate may log as pilot-in-command time only that flight time during which that pilot is the sole manipulator of the controls. The pilot must hold an appropriate pilot certificate and rating for the aircraft. An airline transport pilot may log as PIC time all of the flight time during which that pilot acts as PIC. A certified flight instructor may log as PIC time all flight during which that pilot acts as PIC.


pilotage

Flying cross-country, from one visible landmark to another, using only a chart.


PIREP

Abbreviation for "pilot report." A PIREP describes actual inflight conditions, such as the height of clouds, visibility, precipitation, turbulence, and icing. On weather reports in the U.S., pilot reports are preceded by the letters "UA." A pilot report includes the following items: position relative to a weather reporting station or navigation aid, time (UTC), altitude, aircraft type, cloud types and altitudes, visibility, outside air temperature, wind, turbulence, and remarks. Some of the information may be omitted.


pitch

Movement of an aircraft about its lateral axis (nose up or nose down), or the angle of an airplane's nose above or below the horizon. The pilot moves the control stick or yoke forward and back to move the elevator, located on the horizontal stabilizer. Forward pressure lowers the nose; back pressure raises the nose.


pitot static system
pitot-static system

The sensors, connecting lines, and flight instruments that measure, transmit, and display information about an aircraft's airspeed, altitude, and rate of climb or descent. The pitot-static system includes the pitot tube, static ports, and tubing that connects the sensors and instruments in the cockpit. The airspeed indicator is connected to both the pitot tube and the static ports. The altimeter and vertical speed indicator are connected only to the static ports.


pitot tube

A small metal probe, usually attached to a wing or the nose of an aircraft, that measures ram air pressure as the aircraft moves. The pitot tube is part of the pitot-static system. It is connected directly to the airspeed indicator, which displays the ram air pressure on a scale, usually calibrated in knots. The pitot tube usually has a heater to prevent ice from blocking the device. The probe is named after Henri Pitot (1695–1771), a French scientist who invented devices to measure the flow of water in rivers and canals.


practical test

In the U.S., an oral and flight test required for a pilot certificate or rating. Practical tests are given by government inspectors or designated examiners. The required knowledge and performance standards for each pilot certificate or rating are specified in a series of Practical Test Standards (PTS) available from the Government Printing Office or from many publishers of aviation-related books and study guides.


precipitation

Any or all forms of water particles, whether liquid or solid, that fall from the atmosphere and reach the surface. Precipitation is distinguished from cloud and virga in that it must reach the surface.


precipitation-induced fog

Fog formed when relatively warm rain or drizzle falls through cool air. Evaporation from the precipitation saturates the cool air and forms fog. Precipitation-induced fog can become quite dense and persistent. It often extends over large areas, completely suspending flight operations. It is most commonly associated with warm fronts, but it can occur with slow-moving cold fronts and with stationary fronts. Precipitation-induced fog is especially critical because it occurs in precipitation and related hazards such as icing, turbulence, and thunderstorms.


pressure altimeter

An aneroid barometer with a scale graduated in altitude instead of pressure. Using standard atmospheric pressure-height relationships, a pressure altimeter shows indicated altitude (not necessarily true altitude). It may be set to measure indicated altitude from any arbitrarily chosen level.


pressure altitude

The altitude indicated when the altimeter is set to 29.92 inches of mercury or 1013.2 millibars. Pressure altitude is used in several important calculations, including the determination of density altitude, true altitude, and true airspeed. In the U.S., aircraft operating at 18,000 ft (5486 m) or higher fly at "flight levels," which are pressure altitudes. When operating at or above FL 180, the pilot should set the altimeter to 29.92 to display pressure altitude.


prevailing easterlies

The broad current or pattern of persistent easterly winds in the tropics and polar regions.


prevailing visibility

In the U.S., the greatest horizontal visibility that is equaled or exceeded throughout half of the horizon circle; it need not be a continuous half.


prevailing westerlies

The dominant west-to-east motion of the atmosphere, centered over middle latitudes of both hemispheres.


primary flight instruments

The six instruments displayed on the standard instrument cluster: airspeed indicator, attitude indicator, altimeter, turn coordinator, heading indicator, and vertical speed indicator.


private pilot certificate

In the U.S., a pilot certificate issued to a person who does not intend to act as a pilot in command for compensation or hire. To be eligible for a private pilot certificate, a person must be at least 17 years old and hold a current third class medical certificate. To earn a private pilot certificate, a person must acquire at least 40 hours of flight time, including 20 hours of flight instruction and 20 hours of solo flight time. The training must include basic maneuvers, cross-country navigation, and other specific tasks.


prognostic chart
prognostic chart (PROG)

A chart of expected or forecast weather conditions.


radar

Acronym for RAdio Direction And Ranging, a device for detecting distant objects by reflecting radio waves from their surfaces. The British first integrated radar into their military defenses, and its value during the Battle of Britain was enormous. Today radar is the primary tool for air traffic control. Some aircraft also carry weather radar, designed to detect precipitation and wind shears associated with thunderstorms and other hazards.


radar altitude

The altitude of an aircraft determined by radar or radio altimeter. It is the actual distance between an aircraft and the ground or water surface directly beneath it.


radial

One of the 360 "spokes," one for each degree in a circle, radiated from a VOR station. To fly a specific course, the pilot tunes the appropriate VOR station and selects a radial to fly. An indicator in the cockpit, called an OBI, shows the aircraft's position relative to that radial.


radial engine

A type of reciprocating piston engine in which the cylinders are arranged like the spokes of a wheel.


radarsonde observation

An observation in which winds are determined by tracking a balloon-borne target with radar.


radiation fog

Fog characteristically formed over land at night or near daybreak when cooling of the earth's surface lowers the air temperature near the ground to or below the initial dew point. Radiation fog is especially common on calm, clear nights. It is relatively shallow and may be dense enough to hide the entire sky.


radio stack

The area where the COM, NAV and transponder radios are installed in an aircraft instrument panel. Radios are usually arranged in a vertical column, or stack.


radiosonde

A balloon-borne instrument for measuring pressure, temperature, and humidity aloft.


rate of climb

The speed (usually measured in feet per minute) at which an aircraft is climbing. The term sometimes is stretched to include the rate of descent. The rate of climb is read on the vertical speed indicator (VSI).


rating

In the U.S., an endorsement added to a pilot certificate that specifies the classes of aircraft (single-engine land, instrument, multi-engine land, helicopter, and so forth) that a pilot may fly and whether the pilot is allowed to act as pilot in command when the weather does not meet the minimums specified for flight under visual flight rules (VFR).


rawinsonde observation

A combined winds aloft and radiosonde observation. Winds are determined by tracking the radiosonde by radio direction finder or radar.


recreational pilot certificate

In the U.S., a pilot certificate issued to a person who intends to fly only for recreation in basic aircraft. To be eligible for a recreational pilot certificate, a person must be at least 17 years old and hold a current third class medical certificate. To earn a recreational pilot certificate, a person must acquire at least 30 hours of flight time, including 15 hours of flight instruction. Recreational pilots are subject to many restrictions. For example, they may not carry more than one passenger and must remain within 50 nm of an airport where they received flight instruction. Recreational pilots are restricted to basic single-engine aircraft with no more than 180 hp, four seats, and fixed landing gear. They also cannot fly at night, above 10,000 ft (3000 m), or when the visibility is less than 3 sm.


relative humidity

The ratio, usually expressed in percent, between the amount of water present in the air and the maximum amount that could be present at a given temperature. Warm air can hold more water vapor than cool air. If temperature increases and the amount of water vapor in the air remains constant, relative humidity decreases. If temperature drops while the amount of water vapor stays constant, relative humidity increases. Air with 100 percent relative humidity is saturated. The temperature at which the air reaches 100 percent relative humidity is called the dew point.


relative wind

The speed and direction of air striking an airfoil; that is, the air flow caused by an aircraft or airfoil's movement through the air. The relative wind blows parallel and opposite to the airfoil. The angle between the relative wind and the chord line is the angle of attack. Lift acts perpendicular to the relative wind.


retreating blade stall

In a helicopter, a condition in which the rotor blades on the left side of the rotor disk (when seen from above) exceed their critical angle of attack and stall. This situation can occur when a helicopter is flying at a high forward speed, which increases the angle of attack of the rotor blades moving toward the rear of the aircraft. This phenomenon is the primary limitation on a helicopter’s maximum speed. Turbulence, low rotor RPM, steep and abrupt turns, high gross weight, and high density altitude can also induce retreating blade stall.

The signs of retreating blade stall include a low-frequency vibration, a tendency for the helicopter’s nose to pitch up, and a roll to the left.

To recover from a retreating blade stall, lower the collective to reduce the rotor’s angle of attack and slow down.


Richard Whitcomb

1921– . American engineer. At the laboratory of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), Whitcomb developed the "area rule" for reducing drag at transonic speeds by pinching in the fuselage where it meets the wing. In 1955 he won aviation's prestigious Collier Trophy for inventing this "Coke-bottle effect" during his breakthrough redesign of the Convair YF-102's fuselage.


ridge

In meteorology, an elongated area of relatively high atmospheric pressure; usually associated with and most clearly identified as an area of maximum anticyclonic curvature of the wind flow.


ridge lift

An area of rising air created when wind blows against the side of a ridge and is deflected upward. In such conditions, sailplanes can stay aloft for hours by flying parallel to a ridge, riding those rising currents of air.


rigid rotor system

One of three main types of rotor system used in modern helicopters. A rigid rotor system has three or more main rotor blades. The blades flap—move up and down—independently to compensate for dissymmetry of lift. They also feather—twist at the rotor hub—independently to adjust angle of attack as they rotate. Unlike a fully articulated system, a rigid rotor system is hingeless and the rotors and can lead and lag independently.

Rigid rotor systems are the most expensive types of rotors to manufacture. They are typically made of composite materials and titanium and tend to give a relatively rough ride. However, they resist low-G conditions and ground resonance and require less maintenance than other rotor systems.


rime ice

White or milky and opaque granular deposits of ice formed by the rapid freezing of supercooled water droplets on exposed parts of an aircraft. Rime ice forms when drops are small, usually in stratiform clouds or light drizzle. The liquid portion remaining after initial impact freezes before the drop spreads over the aircraft surface. The small frozen droplets trap air between them giving the ice a milky appearance. Rime ice is lighter than clear ice, but its irregular shape and rough surface quickly degrade the efficiency of airfoils.


roll

Rotation about an aircraft's longitudinal axis. The pilot controls roll, or the bank of the wings, with the ailerons. A roll is also an aerobatic maneuver in which an airplane rotates completely around its longitudinal axis.


roll cloud

A dense and horizontal roll-shaped accessory cloud located on the lower leading edge of a cumulonimbus. Roll clouds can also be found near a rapidly developing cumulus cloud. They indicate turbulence.


rotary engine

Type of piston engine, common in WWI aircraft, with a stationary crankshaft and cylinders that rotate around the crankshaft. Rotary engines were lighter-weight, more reliable, and more easily cooled than many contemporary radial and inline piston engines, but they had high fuel consumption and their rotational inertia sometimes made an aircraft difficult to maneuver.


rotation

Pulling back on the control yoke or stick to raise the nose of an aircraft during the takeoff roll.


rotation speed (Vr)

The speed at which the pilot should pull back on the control yoke or stick to begin raising an aircraft's nose during takeoff.


rotor cloud

A turbulent cloud formation found in the lee of some large mountain barriers, the air in the cloud rotates around an axis parallel to the range; indicative of possible violent turbulence.


rudder

A movable control surface usually mounted on the vertical stabilizer of the tail. The rudder moves the aircraft about its vertical, or yaw axis. It does not, however, turn the airplane. It is used primarily to balance forces in turns and to counteract yawing motions induced by the propeller during flight. A pilot moves the rudder by applying pressure to the left or right rudder pedal. The pedals are mounted on the floor of the cockpit. In normal maneuvering, the pilot uses simultaneous aileron and rudder pressures to maintain balanced or coordinated flight.


runway visual range (RVR)

The horizontal distance (in feet or meters) that a pilot should be able to see down the runway from the approach end. RVR is based on either the sighting of high intensity runway lights or on the visual contrast of other objects, whichever yields the greatest visual range.


sailplane

A highly efficient unpowered aircraft that, unlike a glider, can maintain or gain altitude by riding thermals or other rising air.


saturated adiabatic lapse rate

The rate of decrease of temperature with height as saturated air is lifted with no gain or loss of heat from outside sources. This value varies with temperature, and is greatest at low temperatures.


scud

Small detached masses of stratus fractus clouds below a layer of higher clouds, usually nimbostratus. More generally, "scud" is any low-level clouds or fog. Pilots who fly at low altitude beneath clouds are said to be "scud running."


sea fog

A type of advection fog formed when air that has been lying over a warm surface is transported over a colder water surface.


semimonocoque

A kind of fuselage construction that distributes the structural load of the aircraft between its skin and the framework.


semi-rigid rotor system

One of three main types of rotor system used in modern helicopters. A semi-rigid rotor system has two main rotor blades. The blades flap—move up and down—as a unit, like a teeter-totter, to compensate for dissymmetry of lift. They also feather—twist at the rotor hub—as a unit to adjust angle of attack as they rotate. The rotor system is also underslung to compensate for the Coriolis effect—the leading and lagging of the main rotor blades as the center of mass moves toward and away from the rotor’s axis of rotation.

Semi-rigid rotor systems are relatively inexpensive to maintain, but their flapping characteristics can lead to mast bumping. They are also susceptible to low-G conditions.


settling with power

The tendency of a helicopter to descend rapidly into its own rotor downwash. The high descent rate associated with settling with power is the most common cause of helicopter accidents. Settling with power occurs when the helicopter has an airspeed of less than 10 knots, is in a descent of more than 300 fpm, and is developing more than 20 percent power.

Most often you encounter these conditions while hovering out of ground effect without maintaining altitude, when attempting to hover above the helicopter’s out-of-ground-effect hover ceiling, or during a landing with a tailwind, which blows the downwash beneath the helicopter.

This phenomenon is caused by vortices that form at the root of the rotor blades and then travel outward. Like a stalled airplane wing, the rotors no longer produce enough lift to maintain the helicopter in level flight or a gradual descent. Settling with power is usually associated with a low-frequency vibration, loss of cyclic control effectiveness, and a rapid descent rate.

To recover, you must move the helicopter out of its downwash by traveling forward, backward, or to the side at an airspeed of at least 10 knots.


severe icing

Icing, regardless of type, that accumulates so rapidly that even aircraft equipped with anti-icing or de-icing equipment must divert immediately.


severe turbulence

In aviation weather reports and pilot reports, turbulence that causes large, abrupt changes in altitude, attitude, or both. Severe turbulence usually causes wide variations in indicated airspeed. The aircraft may be momentarily out of control. Occupants are forced violently against seat belts or shoulder straps. Unsecured objects are tossed about. On a large aircraft, food service and walking are impossible.


shock wave

Created when airflow changes abruptly from subsonic to supersonic speed, causing an enormous increase in air pressure and temperature. When an aircraft travels above Mach 1, shock waves bend backward to form a cone. If this cone reaches the earth's surface, it causes an explosive sound called a sonic boom.


shower

Precipitation from a cumuliform cloud. A shower is characterized by the suddenness with which it begins and ends, by a rapid change of intensity, and usually by rapid change in the appearance of the sky. Showery precipitation may be in the form of rain, ice pellets, or snow.


sink rate

Negative vertical velocity, usually expressed in feet per second.


skid

A turn in which the rate of turn is too great for the angle of the bank. In a skid, the ball at the bottom of the turn coordinator moves to the outside of the turn. To correct a skid, use the ailerons to increase the bank, reduce rudder pressure, or both, in the direction of the turn.


slat

A movable auxiliary airfoil on the leading edge of a wing. The slat extends into the flow of air and creates a gap that allows air to flow smoothly over the top of the wing, delaying the stall at high angles of attack.


slewing

In Flight Simulator, a method of rapidly changing aircraft position, direction, location, or altitude without flying.


slip

A turn in which the rate of turn is too slow for the angle of the bank. In a slip, the ball at the bottom of the turn coordinator moves to the inside of the turn. To correct for a slip, use the ailerons to decrease the bank, increase rudder pressure, or both in the direction of the turn. Pilots also use forward slips and side slips to correct for crosswinds during landings and to increase an aircraft's rate of descent without increasing its airspeed.


spin

A steep, spiraling descent during which an aircraft is stalled and rotating rapidly. The characteristic rotation is the result of a strong yawing moment that occurs when one wing is stalled while the other still produces some lift.


spoilers
spoilers (speed brakes)

Panels on an aircraft's wings that disrupt the flow of air over the wing surface. Spoilers (sometimes called “speed brakes”) reduce the wing's lift and increase drag. Spoilers enable a jet aircraft to make a rapid descents without building excess speed. They are also used immediately after landing to "dump" lift and increase braking efficiency. Sailplane pilots also use spoilers during descent and landing to control their rate of descent.


spool up

To increase power in a jet engine.


squall

A sudden increase in wind speed by at least 15 knots to a peak of 20 knots or more and lasting for at least one minute. The essential difference between a gust and a squall is the duration of the peak speed.


squall line

A narrow band of active, often severe, thunderstorms not associated with a front. Squall lines often form ahead of a cold front in moist, unstable air, but they can also develop in unstable air far removed from any front. Squall lines present the single most intense weather hazard to aircraft. They usually develop rapidly and reach maximum intensity during the late afternoon and early evening. Squall lines may also be too long to fly around and too wide and severe to fly through, creating a true barrier in the sky.


stability
stability (aircraft)

Generally, a measure of how an object reacts after it is disturbed by an outside force. Aircraft stability is classified as three types. Positive stability is the tendency to return to steady state flight after a change in attitude or power. Aircraft are generally designed to exhibit positive stability. An aircraft with neutral stability would remain in the new attitude after being disturbed and not return to its initial condition. An aircraft with negative stability would diverge from its initial condition, with the oscillations increasing with time.

Stability can also be classified as "static" and "dynamic." Static stability is the initial tendency to return to equilibrium. Dynamic stability refers to dampening of oscillations over time.


stability (atmospheric)

A measure of the vertical movement of air within an air mass. More specifically, it is a state of the atmosphere in which the vertical distribution of temperature is such that a parcel of air resists displacement from its initial level.


stall

A sudden loss of lift caused by a disruption of the normal smooth flow of air over the upper surface of a wing. A stall is an aerodynamic phenomenon and has nothing to do with the engine. A stall occurs when a wing's angle of attack reaches a specific value, called the critical angle of attack. It is this angle between the wing and the oncoming air—not the airplane's speed, weight, or pitch attitude relative to the horizon—that determines when a wing stalls. In fact, an airplane can stall at any airspeed and in any attitude.


stall speed

The speed at which an aircraft enters a stall under a specified set of conditions. Although an airplane always stalls when the wing's angle of attack reaches the critical angle of attack, the speed at which the stall occurs depends on the aircraft's weight, load factor, the amount of thrust being produced, angle of bank, position of flaps and landing gear, and other factors.

In fact, an airplane can stall at any airspeed—because regardless of speed, a stall occurs only when the angle between the relative wind (parallel and opposite to the aircraft's flight path) and the wing reaches the critical angle of attack.


standard atmosphere

A hypothetical atmosphere based on climatological averages. The most important constants defined in the standard atmosphere are: a surface temperature of 15 degrees C (59 degrees F) and a surface pressure of 1,013.2 millibars (29.92 in of mercury) at sea level; a lapse rate in the troposphere of approximately 2 degrees C (3.6 degrees F) per 1,000 ft (6.5 degrees C per km), a drop in pressure of approximately 1 in of mercury per 1,000 ft (110 mb per 1,000 m), a tropopause of approximately 36,000 ft (11 km) with a temperature of –56.5 degrees C; and an isothermal lapse rate in the stratosphere to an altitude of approximately 80,000 ft (24 km).


standard conditions

An arbitrary standard established as a baseline for calculations used in meteorology, aviation, and aerodynamics. A set of standard conditions exists for each altitude. At sea level, standard conditions are defined as 29.92 inches of mercury (1,013 millibars) and 59 degrees F (15 degrees C).


standard pressure

An arbitrary standard established as a baseline for calculations used in meteorology, aviation, and aerodynamics. A standard pressure is defined at all altitudes. At sea level, the standard is 29.92 in of mercury or 1,013 millibars.


standard rate turn

A turn of either 3 degrees or 1.5 degrees per second. Small aircraft typically use the 3 degrees/second rate, which results in a 360-degree turn after 2 minutes. Large, fast aircraft typically use the slower rate, which results in a 360-degree turn in 4 minutes. Pilots use the standard rate turn while flying under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR). It provides a steady, predictable, and easy-to-control rate of turn. Standard rate turns are also useful if the heading indicator fails. The pilot can make accurate turns to specific headings by banking at the standard rate and timing the turn.


standard temperature

An arbitrary standard used by aeronautical engineers and pilots in calculations to determine aircraft performance, true airspeed, true altitude, and so forth. The standard temperature is part of the definition of the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). At sea level, the standard temperature is defined as 59 degrees F (15 degrees C). The standard temperature of dry air drops by about 3.5 degrees F (2 degrees C) per 1,000 ft (305 m). The standard temperature drops to about 32 degrees F (0 degrees C) at about 7,500 ft (2,300 m).


standardized instrument cluster

An industry-accepted standard for arranging the six most commonly used flight instruments on an aircraft instrument panel. The instruments are arranged in two rows. The top row contains the airspeed indicator, attitude indicator, and altimeter. The bottom row contains the turn coordinator, heading indicator, and vertical speed indicator.


stationary front

A front in which neither air mass is replacing the other. In such cases, the surface winds tend to blow parallel to the frontal zone. The slope of a stationary front is normally shallow, although it may be steep depending on wind distribution and density difference.


statute mile (sm)

A distance of 5,280 ft (1,609 m). In the U.S., statute miles are used to measure visibility in weather reports. Speeds and distances are measured and reported in nautical miles (6,076 ft or 1,852 m) or nautical miles per hour (knots).


steady state flight
steady-state flight

Flight in which the opposing pairs of forces (lift and weight, thrust and drag) are balanced. An aircraft is in steady-state flight when it flies at a constant altitude and airspeed or when it flies at a constant airspeed and is climbing or descending at constant rate.


STOL

Abbreviation for "short takeoff and landing." It describes aircraft capable of operating from airfields with short runways.


steam fog

Fog formed when air blows from a cold surface (either land or water) over warmer water.


stratiform

Clouds with extensive horizontal development. Stratiform clouds develop in stable air and, therefore, are composed of small water droplets.


stratocumulus

A low, predominantly stratiform cloud. It is usually a mosaic of gray and whitish patches or layers. The layers may or may not merge, and such clouds are rounded or roll-shaped with relatively flat tops.


stratosphere

The region of the earth's atmosphere above the troposphere and tropopause, beginning at an altitude of 5–10 mi (8–16 km), depending on latitude and season. The stratosphere is a region of relatively uniform temperatures and winds, extending to about 30 mi (48 km), where it meets the mesosphere.


stratus cloud
stratus clouds

A low, gray cloud layer or sheet with a fairly uniform base, formed in stable air. Stratus clouds sometimes appear in ragged patches. They seldom produce precipitation but may produce drizzle or snow grains.


student pilot certificate

In the U.S., a pilot certificate issued to a pilot in training. To be eligible for a student pilot certificate for powered aircraft, a person must be at least 16 years old and hold at least a current third class medical certificate. A student pilot certificate is valid for 24 months. Student pilots cannot carry passengers, act as pilot in command of an aircraft for compensation or hire, or make international flights (except between certain places in Alaska and Canada). Student pilots may fly only when visibility is at least 3 sm (5 sm at night) and must maintain visual contact with the ground. Student pilots also must receive specific endorsements from a certified flight instructor before flying solo, making cross-country flights, or operating an aircraft in certain types of controlled airspace. Those endorsements must be renewed every 90 days.


sublimation

The changing of ice directly to water vapor, or water vapor to ice, bypassing the liquid state in each process. Snow or ice crystals result from the sublimation of water vapor directly to the solid state.


subsonic

Speeds below the speed of sound, that is, less than Mach 1.


supercharger

A compressor used to increase the density of the air or the air-fuel mixture supplied to a piston engine. As an aircraft climbs, the density of the air entering the engine decreases. Without a supercharger or a tubocharger, an engine gradually loses power. A normally aspirated or "unboosted" engine is most efficient at about 8,000 ft (2,438 m). By the time an aircraft reaches 18,000 ft (5,486 m), the density of the air is about half its value at sea level, and a supercharger or turbocharger is required for efficient operation of the engine.


supercooled water

Water droplets colder than 0 degrees C (32 degrees F). When supercooled droplets strike an exposed object, such as an aircraft's wings and other structures, the impact induces freezing. Supercooled water drops very often are in abundance in clouds at temperatures between 0 and –15 degrees C with decreasing amounts at colder temperatures. However, strong vertical currents may carry supercooled water to great heights where temperatures are much colder. Supercooled water has been observed at temperatures colder than –40 degrees C.


supersonic

Speed that exceeds the speed of sound; Mach 1or greater.


surface inversion

An inversion with its base at the surface, often caused by cooling of the air near the surface as a result of terrestrial radiation, especially at night.


surface visibility

Visibility observed from eye-level above the ground.


tachometer

The instrument that shows the speed of rotation of the engine. It is marked in revolutions per minute (rpm). Engines that produce more than about 180 hp usually have constant speed propellers that can change the blade angle to make more efficient use of engine power throughout a wide range of airspeeds.


takeoff roll

The portion of the takeoff during which the airplane accelerates on the runway.


taxi

To move an aircraft under its own power on the ground.


temperature-dewpoint spread
temperature–dew point spread

The difference between air temperature and dew point temperature. As this difference narrows, clouds and fog are more likely to appear. Pilots must also be aware that even if the spread at ground level is quite large, as temperature drops with altitude the spread narrows, and clouds may form. Pilots should be especially alert for fog whenever the temperature–dew point spread is 5 degrees F (2.8 degrees C) or less and decreasing.


temperature layer

In Flight Simulator, a user-specified weather option that includes the air temperature at a specific altitude and the day–night variation in temperature. You select temperature options in the Advanced Weather dialog box. You can create four temperature layers to see how temperature affects density altitude and aircraft performance.


thermal

A rising column of air caused by the sun heating the earth's surface. Sailplane pilots use thermals to climb or maintain altitude.


threshold

The beginning of the runway surface that is usable for landings. The threshold may coincide with physical end of the runway or be displaced if part of the runway is not usable for landings. The threshold is marked by a single white line on visual runways or by eight parallel white lines arranged in two groups of four on either side of the centerline of an instrument runway.


throttle

The cockpit control that most directly determines the power output of the engine. In a piston engine, the throttle actually controls the amount of air entering the carburetor or induction system. The carburetor or fuel metering system mixes the appropriate amount of fuel with the air to create a combustible mixture. When fully "open" the throttle allows the maximum amount of air to enter the system to produce maximum power. When the throttle is "closed," only a small amount of air enters the system and the engine produces minimum power.


thrust

The forward force generated by a propeller or jet engine that moves the aircraft forward through the air. One of the four major forces, thrust is opposed by drag.


thunderstorm

In general, a local storm invariably produced by a cumulonimbus cloud and always accompanied by lightning and thunder.


trace icing

Icing, regardless of type, that accumulates at about the same rate as it dissipates by sublimation. Trace icing is not considered hazardous, even to aircraft without anti-icing or de-icing equipment, unless the airplane remains in icing conditions for more than one hour.


traffic pattern

The traffic flow prescribed for aircraft landing at and taking off from an airport. Also called a "circuit," chiefly in Britain. A complete landing pattern includes a downwind leg, a base leg, and a final leg. Aircraft taking off typically fly an upwind leg and crosswind leg to depart the airport traffic pattern.


translational lift

In a helicopter, an increase in performance while in forward flight or when hovering in a wind. Air moving horizontally across the rotor disk helps the rotor produce more lift at a given power setting. This effect is generally seen at speeds of less than 10–15 knots. As speed increases, the helicopter experiences effective translational lift.


translating tendency

In a helicopter, the tendency of the aircraft to drift in the direction of tail rotor thrust. For example, U.S.-built helicopters tend to drift right in a hover. Manufacturers compensate for this effect by tilting the main rotor mast slightly to the left or by rigging the cyclic slightly to the left. But the pilot may need to apply slight left cyclic pressure to compensate, especially when operating at a high power setting, such as during a hover or while climbing.


transonic

Speeds close to the speed of sound, in which both subsonic and supersonic airflow conditions exist. Transonic speeds range from about Mach 0.8 to Mach 1.4.


transponder

An airborne transceiver that receives signals from air traffic control (ATC) radar and replies with a preset identification code, or "squawk," set by the pilot. A computer uses the code to display information about each aircraft on an air traffic controller's radar display. Most aircraft today are also equipped with altitude encoders, which transmit the aircraft's altitude along with the transponder code. In the U.S., aircraft operating under visual flight rules (VFR) squawk code 1200 unless they are using air traffic control services and are assigned a specific code by ATC. Under instrument flight rules (IFR), all aircraft are assigned transponder codes by ATC.


tricycle-gear

A landing gear system that includes a nose wheel assembly and two main gear assemblies. Because the center of gravity of a tricycle-gear airplane lies ahead of the main gear, this geometry is much more stable on the ground than the so-called conventional gear or "taildragger" arrangement, which has two main gear assemblies and a tailwheel.


trim

To adjust a movable tab on a control surface, usually the elevator, to relieve pressure on the flight controls. Trim is necessary because as an aircraft changes speed, the amount of air flowing over the control surfaces varies. Without trim, a pilot would have to hold forward or back pressure on the yoke or column to maintain a specific airspeed or pitch attitude. Larger aircraft also have aileron and rudder trim.


tropopause

A thin layer in the upper atmosphere that forms the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere. The tropopause is usually characterized by an abrupt change of lapse rate. The height of the tropopause varies from about 65,000 ft (19.8 km) over the equator to 20,000 ft (6,096 m) or lower over the poles. Temperature and wind vary greatly in the vicinity of the tropopause. Maximum winds generally occur at levels near the tropopause. These strong winds create narrow zones of wind shear which often generate hazardous high-altitude turbulence.


troposphere

The layer of the atmosphere from the surface to an average altitude of about 7 mi (11 km). Most weather occurs within the troposphere. Temperature generally decreases with altitude in the troposphere at an average rate of 2 degrees C (3.6 degrees F) per 1,000 ft (305 m). The height of the troposphere varies with latitude and seasons. It slopes from about 20,000 ft (6,096 m) over the poles to about 65,000 ft (19.8 km) over the equator. It is higher in summer than in winter. A very thin layer called the tropopause marks the boundary between the troposphere and the next highest layer, the stratosphere.


towering cumulus

A rapidly growing cumulus in which height exceeds width.


tower visibility

Prevailing visibility determined from the control tower.


trade winds

Prevailing, almost continuous winds blowing with an easterly component from the subtropical high pressure belts toward the intertropical convergence zone. They blow northeast in the Northern Hemisphere, southeast in the Southern Hemisphere.


transmissometer

An instrument system that measures the transmission of light through the atmosphere. The transmission value is converted either automatically or manually into visibility, runway visual range (RVR), or both.


transverse flow effect

In a helicopter, a decrease in lift in the aft portion of the rotor disk when in forward flight or when hovering in a wind. At slow speeds, the air moving through the aft portion of the rotor disk is accelerated for a longer time and moves more vertically than the air at the front of the disk. As this accelerated air flows through the aft portion of the disk, it reduces the angle of attack of the rotor blades, decreasing lift produced by the aft part of the rotor disk.


trough

In meteorology, an elongated area of relatively low atmospheric pressure. A trough is usually associated with and most clearly identified as an area of maximum cyclonic curvature of the wind flow.


true airspeed (TAS)

An aircraft's actual speed through the surrounding air. As an aircraft climbs the surrounding air becomes less dense. Therefore indicated airspeed tends to decrease as altitude increases. To determine how fast the airplane is really moving through the air, the pilot calculates TAS based on the aircraft's current pressure altitude and the outside air temperature. A pilot must know TAS to solve navigation problems and file flight plans. As a rule of thumb, at a given indicated airspeed, true airspeed increases about 2 percent for each 1,000 ft (305 m) of altitude. Therefore, an aircraft flying at an indicated airspeed of 100 knots at 10,000 ft (3,050 m) is actually flying at about 120 knots through the air.

By default, airspeed indicators in Microsoft Flight Simulator display indicated airspeed. You can change this setting to display true airspeed on the airspeed indicators. Click Preferences on the Options menu, and on the Instrument tab, clear the Display Indicated Airspeed option.


true altitude

An aircraft's actual height above mean sea level. True altitude is the altitude shown on the altimeter, corrected for non-standard temperature. If the temperature at a particular indicated altitude is warmer than the standard temperature for that altitude, an aircraft's altimeter senses higher than normal pressure and shows an altitude lower than the aircraft is actually flying. If the temperature is cooler than the standard temperature for a particular altitude, the altimeter senses lower than normal pressure and shows an altitude higher than the aircraft is actually flying. Variations from non-standard temperature usually cause only small errors in the altimeter. But when flying without visual references over mountainous terrain or when temperatures aloft differ significantly from the standard temperatures, a pilot should check the aircraft's true altitude to ensure obstacle clearance.


true north

A heading or course pointed directly at the earth's geographic north pole. The earth's magnetic north pole is offset from the geographic north pole, so course lines drawn on a chart are usually referenced to lines of longitude, which indicate true north. To solve navigation problems, pilots convert true courses or headings into magnetic courses and headings that they can fly by referencing the aircraft's compass. The difference between true north and magnetic north is called "variation." The actual value of the variation depends on your location. Many weather reports and forecasts indicate wind direction referenced to true north.


turbocharger

A device on a piston engine that compresses the air entering the engine to maintain power output at high altitudes. Exhaust gas from the engine spins a turbine in the turbocharger at high speed. A compressor attached to the same shaft as the turbine compresses the air entering the intake manifold, "boosting" the engine's power as the density of the outside air decreases with altitude. Turbochargers increase the temperature of the air entering the engine, so pilots must monitor engine temperatures carefully.


turbofan

A jet engine in which most of the air entering the engine is accelerated by a large fan and does not pass through the combustion chamber of the engine. Turbofan engines have largely replaced turbojet engines, in which most of the air entering the engine passes through the combustion chamber. Turbofan engines are much more efficient and significantly quieter than turbojets.


turbojet

A jet engine in which most of air the entering the engine passes through several compressing turbines and then enters the combustion chamber. In a turbojet engine, the exhaust stream produces most of the engine's thrust. Turbojet engines have largely been replaced by more efficient and quieter turbofan engines.


turboprop

A jet engine that drives a propeller to create thrust. Turboprop aircraft are less noisy and burn less fuel than turbojet aircraft, but they are also efficient only at speeds up to about 640 km/h (400 mph). Also called a propjet.


turn coordinator

One of the six primary flight instruments, the turn coordinator shows the rate of turn and the quality of a turn—whether the aircraft is slipping, skidding, or in a balanced turn. In most modern light aircraft the turn coordinator has replaced the "needle and ball," which served the same function.


TWEB

Abbreviation for transcribed weather broadcast. These recorded weather reports and forecasts, prepared by a Flight Service Station (FSS) in the U.S., are broadcast over many navigation facilities, especially VORs. Pilots can monitor TWEB broadcasts while en route to stay up-to-date with the latest weather information.


type certificate

An official document that certifies that an aircraft or engine design has met all the criteria specified in the regulations governing the certification and testing of aircraft. In the U.S., the FAA issues normal, utility, transport, acrobatic, experimental, limited, restricted, and provisional type certificates.


type rating

In the U.S., an authorization added to a pilot certificate that permits a person to act as pilot in command of a specific type of aircraft, usually a large or turbojet-powered aircraft or helicopter. Type ratings are required for all aircraft with a maximum certificated takeoff weight of more than 12,500 lbs (5,670 kg) and all turbojet-powered aircraft, regardless of maximum takeoff weight. A type rating is also required to act as pilot in command of a helicopter if the operation also requires that the pilot hold an airline transport pilot certificate.


ultralight

Single-seat, lightweight aircraft designed for recreational flying. Also known as "microlights," chiefly in Britain. In the U.S., ultralight aircraft are not certified by the FAA and no pilot certificate is required to fly them. According to U.S. regulations (FAR Part 103), an aircraft qualifies as an ultralight if it has an empty weight of no more than 254 lbs (115 kg), if it is equipped with an engine, can carry no more than 5 gallons (18.9 l), cannot fly more than 55 knots in level flight at full power, and has a power-off stall speed no greater than 24 knots.


uncontrolled airspace

Airspace in which air traffic control does not provide services and in which an ATC clearance is not required to operate, regardless of weather conditions.


uncoordinated flight

Slipping or skidding flight caused by yawing forces produced by a turn, by the action of the propeller and slipstream, or by an imbalance of power in a multiengine aircraft. The inclinometer (ball) of the turn coordinator shows whether the yawing forces are properly balanced. If the ball is on the inside of a turn, the airplane is slipping. If the ball moves to the outside of a turn, the airplane is skidding.


undercast

A solid cloud layer as viewed from above the layer.


updraft

A localized upward current of air.


upslope fog

Fog formed when air flows upward over rising terrain and is cooled to or below its initial dew point. Once the upslope wind ceases, the fog dissipates. Unlike radiation fog, upslope fog can form under cloudy skies. It often is quite dense and extends to high altitudes.


UTC (Coordinated Universal Time)

The official time used in air navigation. Also known as Zulu time or GMT. UTC is based on the 24-hour clock; for example, 6:00 P.M. is 1800 hours. Departure and arrival times, air traffic control clearances, the valid time of weather reports and forecasts, and other time-sensitive information in aviation is expressed in UTC.


VASI
VASI (vertical approach slope indicator)

A system of red and white lights near a runway that help pilots determine if they’re on the proper approach path. VASI systems typically include two or three light bars. Each bar usually has two or three lights. If an aircraft is on the proper descent path (usually an angle of about 3 degrees), the pilot sees red lights over white lights. If an aircraft is below the proper descent path, the pilot sees red lights over red lights. The pilot of an aircraft above the proper descent path sees white lights over white lights.


vertical axis

An imaginary vertical line running through the center of an aircraft. Rotation about the vertical axis is called "yaw" and is controlled by the rudder.


vertical speed indicator (VSI)

One of the six basic flight instruments, the vertical speed indicator shows an aircraft's rate of climb or descent, usually in feet per minute. Also known as the rate of climb indicator (RCI) or vertical velocity indicator (VVI). Large aircraft are typically equipped with a sophisticated version of this instrument, called an "instantaneous vertical speed indicator" (IVSI) that reacts immediately to changes in altitude.


vertical stabilizer

The vertical tail surface on an aircraft; sometimes called a "fin." The vertical stabilizer is fixed on most aircraft. With the attached rudder, the vertical stabilizer provides directional stability by controlling movement about the vertical (yaw) axis.


vertigo

A state of temporary spatial confusion resulting from misleading information sent to the brain by various sensory organs; also called "spatial disorientation." Vertigo typically occurs when a pilot cannot see the ground or other references due to clouds or darkness. Turns and other maneuvers can cause the vestibular system—a set of tubes and other sensory organs in the inner ear—to send conflicting signals about the aircraft's orientation and movement. Without visual references to overcome those sensations, the pilot quickly becomes disoriented—unable to tell whether the airplane is flying straight and level, turning, climbing, or descending. To avoid or overcome vertigo, a pilot must rely on the flight instruments to verify the aircraft's attitude and maintain control.


very high frequency (VHF)

The portion of the radio spectrum used in civil aviation for primary radio navigation and communications. Voice communications are assigned frequencies between 118.0 and 136.975 MHz. VORs operate on frequencies between 108.0 and 177.95 MHz.


very high-frequency omnidirectional range (VOR)
very high frequency omnidirectional range (VOR)

A ground-based radio transmitter that projects 360 radials. Some of these radials define airways, but pilots can track any radial to fly a specific path over the ground. VORs operate on frequencies between 108.0 to 177.95 MHz in the VHF band. Although satellite-based navigation systems are rapidly coming into widespread use, VORs remain the primary electronic navigation system in use today.


virga

Water or ice particles falling from a cloud, usually in wisps or streaks, that evaporate before reaching the ground.


visual flight rules (VFR)

The "rules of the road" that govern flight when the visibility and ceiling allow pilots to navigate and avoid obstacles and other aircraft by visual reference. In the U.S., VFR flight is generally permitted when the visibility is at least 3 mi (5 km) and a pilot is able to operate at a safe altitude that is at least 500 ft (152 m) below and 1,000 ft (304 m) above any clouds. In addition, the pilot must remain at least 2,000 ft (608 m) horizontally from any clouds. Specific requirements for VFR depend on the type of airspace, time of day, and height above terrain.


visual meteorological conditions (VMC)

Weather conditions that permit flight under visual flight rules (VFR). In controlled airspace in the U.S., VMC conditions generally mean that the ceiling is at least 1,000 ft (305 m) and flight visibility is at least 3 mi (5 km).


vortices

Rotating air currents created by wings and other airfoils that are producing lift. Vortices are typically created when high-pressure air below a wing circulates toward the low-pressure area above a wing. These vortices are the primary source of induced drag, a byproduct of lift. Vortices created by large, heavy aircraft (called "wake turbulence") are a serious hazard to smaller aircraft, especially during takeoff and landing.


VTOL

Abbreviation for "vertical takeoff and landing," describing aircraft that can take off straight up and land straight down without the need of a runway. The most successful application of VTOL technology, based on the vectored-thrust engine, is the British Harrier jump jet.


wake turbulence

Turbulence caused by a moving aircraft. More specifically, the powerful vortices generated by the wing tips of a large, heavy aircraft.


Walter Beech

1891–1950. American aircraft manufacturer. In 1932 Beech and his wife Olive Ann founded Beech Aircraft, which became a leading producer of light airplanes. Earlier in his aviation career Beech was salesman and test pilot for the Swallow Airplane Company. Failing to persuade the company to adopt metal airframes, he quit and teamed up with Clyde Cessna and Lloyd Stearman to form the Travel Air Manufacturing Company, of which Beech was president.


warm front

Any non-occluded front in which warmer air replaces colder air.


weather areas

In Flight Simulator, regions with similar weather characteristics. Flight Simulator has a global weather area and you can create two local weather areas. You can define the size of the local weather areas and specify the type of clouds, visibility, temperature, wind, atmospheric pressure, and other characteristics of each area.


weathervane effect

The tendency of an aircraft to pivot around its center of gravity and point into the wind.


weight

One of the four basic forces at work on an aircraft in flight. Lift opposes weight (more accurately, the sum of all downward forces), which always acts directly toward the center of the earth. In most calculations, aeronautical engineers assume that all of an aircraft's weight is concentrated at a point called the center of gravity.


William Powell Lear

1902–1978. American designer and manufacturer of business jets. Despite his eighth-grade education, Lear built a successful electronics business. He sold it to finance a new aircraft company, which he started up in 1962 to build business jets based partly on fighters he had helped design for Swiss American Aviation Corp.


wind layer

In Flight Simulator, a user-specified weather option that includes wind speed, direction, gust factor, and turbulence between two altitudes. You select these options on the Wind tab in the Advanced Weather dialog box. You can create two wind layers in each weather area.


wind shear

A sudden, sharp change in wind direction or speed, often associated with a violent, downward burst of air called a microburst or a low-level temperature inversion. Wind shear is particularly dangerous to aircraft during takeoff and landing, where it can cause large variations in airspeed and lead to a rate of sink that can push an aircraft into the ground.


wind tunnel

A device for studying the effects of airflow on aircraft and other vehicles or structures. To simulate the conditions of flight, an aircraft model is mounted in the tunnel and subjected to a stream of air. Sensors gather data on lift and drag, pressure, and other forces acting on the model.


wing loading

An aircraft's weight divided by the area of its wings. For example, an aircraft weighing 4,000 pounds (1,814 kg) that has 400 square feet of wing area has a wing loading of 10 pounds per square foot.


winglets

Vertical extensions added to the ends of a main wing. Winglets reduce induced drag by increasing the effective aspect ratio of the wing, thereby decreasing the intensity of wingtip vortices produced as a byproduct of lift.


wingtip vortex

Rapidly rotating air at an aircraft's wing tips created when a wing produces lift. At the tips, high pressure air below the wing spirals up to the low-pressure area above the wing. Large, heavy aircraft produce intense vortices that are extremely hazardous to small aircraft, especially during takeoff and landing. For example, a small aircraft that flies intoencounters a wing tip vortex can be rolled inverted because the rotation rate of the vortex exceeds the rolling capability produced by the ailerons. Also known as "wake turbulence."


Wright brothers

American aviation pioneers Wilbur (1867–1912) and Orville (1871–1948) Wright made the first powered flight in a heavier-than-air craft. They began experimenting with double-winged kites and gliders and in 1900 made their first test flights at Kitty Hawk. In 1901 they built the first wind tunnel in the U.S., testing over 200 models of wing surfaces. After building an engine for their Flyer, they made their historic flight on December 17, 1903.


yaw

Movement of an aircraft about its vertical axis, as when the nose turns left or right. Along with roll and pitch, yaw is one of an airplane's three basic movements. The vertical stabilizer and rudder are designed to control yaw.


zeppelin

An airship with rigid internal bracing. The helium or hydrogen used to lift a zeppelin is usually contained in large cells. The largest of airships, zeppelins were used as bombers in WWI, but they caused little damage; instead, most were lost to accidents and enemy fire. In 1937 the "Hindenburg" disaster brought a swift end to the use of the rigid airship as a civil transport.


Glossary
A

accelerated stall

ace

active runway

advection

advection fog

advisory circulars (ACs)

aerobatics

aerodynamics

aeronaut

aeronautics

Aérospatiale

aerostats

afterburner

AGL

ailerons

AIM

air mass

air taxi

Air Traffic Control

Airbus Industrie

aircraft

airfoil

airline transport pilot certificate (ATP)

airship

airspace

airspeed

airspeed indicator

Al Mooney

Alberto Santos-Dumont

Alexander Graham Bell

altimeter setting

altocumulus

altocumulus castellanus

altostratus

Amelia Earhart

anemometer

aneroid barometer

angle of attack

angle of incidence

anticyclone

anti-torque pedals

anvil cloud

approach lighting system

Area forecast (FA)

area rule

Aresti notation

aspect ratio

attitude indicator

auto coordination

autogyro

automatic direction finder

automatic pilot

automatic terminal information service

autorotation

avionics

axial-flow

axis indicator

B

balloon (verb)

bank

barnstormer

barometer

barometric altimeter

Bernoulli's Principle

Bill Piper

bleed off

blimp

Boeing

buffet

Buys Ballot's law

C

calibrated airspeed (CAS)

canard

canted gyroscope

cantilever wing

Capt. Chuck Yeager

carburetor

category (aircraft)

ceiling

ceilometer

cell

center of gravity (CG)

centrifugal flow

certified flight instructor certificate

Cessna Aircraft Company

Charles A. Lindbergh

chord

CIGAR check

cirriform

cirrocumulus

cirrostratus

cirrus clouds

Clarence “Kelly” Johnson

class (aircraft)

class (pilot rating)

Class A airspace

Class B airspace

Class C airspace

Class D airspace

Class E airspace

Class G airspace

clear air turbulence (CAT)

clear ice

cloud layer

Clyde Cessna

col

cold front

collective

COM

commercial pilot certificate

composites

condensation

condensation trail

contra-rotating

control yoke

controlled airport

controlled airspace

convection

convective clouds

coordinated flight

Coriolis force

Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin

course deviation indicator

course selector (OBS)

crab angle

critical angle of attack

cruise speed

cumuliform

cumulonimbus clouds

cumulonimbus mamma

cumulus clouds

cyclic

cyclone

D

Daniel Bernoulli

datum

dead reckoning

decision height

density altitude

detonation

dew

dew point

dihedral

dirigible

disk cache

dissymmetry of lift

distance measuring equipment

downdraft

drag

drift

drizzle

dry adiabatic lapse rate

E

effective translational lift

electronic flight instrument system (EFIS)

elevator

empennage

Ernst Mach

Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA)

F

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs)

fixed base operator

flaps

flare

Flight Service Station (FSS)

Flight Watch

fly-by-wire

fractus

Frank Whittle

freezing level

front

frontal zone

frontogenesis

frontolysis

fuel injection system

fully articulated rotor system

fuselage

G

general aviation (GA)

glide ratio

glide slope

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)

ground effect

ground fog

ground loop

ground speed

Gs

GUMPS check

gust

gyro

gyroscopic precession

H

hail

heading

heading indicator

high

high-performance aircraft

hood

horizontal situation indicator (HSI)

horizontal stabilizer

hover

hypersonic

hypoxia

I

ICAO

Igor Sikorsky

Immelmann

indefinite ceiling

indicated airspeed (IAS)

indicated altitude

induced drag

infrared

instrument approach procedure (IAP)

Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)

instrument flight time

instrument landing system (ILS)

instrument meteorological conditions (IMC)

instrument rating

International Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF)

inversion

isobar

isogonic line

isotherm

J

jet stream

joystick

K

katabatic wind

knots

L

landing gear

lapse rate

large aircraft

laser

lateral axis

leading-edge slots

left-turning tendency

lenticular cloud (lenticularis)

Leonardo da Vinci

lift

light aircraft

light gun signals

light icing

light turbulence

lightning

load factor

local weather area

localizer

Lomcovàk

longitudinal axis

loop

low

low G condition

M

Mach 1

Mach number

magnetic compass

magnetic course

magnetic heading

magnetic variation

magneto

maneuvering speed

manifold pressure gauge

marker beacons

Max Immelmann

mean sea level (MSL)

measured ceiling

medical certificate

METAR

microburst

millibar (mb)

mixed ice

mixture control

mmo

moderate icing

moderate turbulence

mountain waves

N

NASA

National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)

nautical mile (nm)

NAV

Nav

navigation lights

nimbostratus

Ninety-Nines

nondirectional radio beacon (NDB)

nose over

O

obscuration

occluded front

oleo-pneumatic

omni-bearing indicator (OBI)

ornithopters

orographic

Otto Lilienthal

ozone

P

parasite drag

partial obscuration

Patty Wagstaff

Paul Poberezny

Percy Pilcher

performance booster

phonetic alphabet

pilot certificate

pilot in command

pilotage

PIREP

pitch

pitot static system

pitot tube

practical test

precipitation

precipitation-induced fog

pressure altimeter

Pressure Altitude

prevailing easterlies

prevailing visibility

prevailing westerlies

primary flight instruments

private pilot certificate

prognostic chart

Q

R

radar

radar altitude

radarsonde observation

radial

radial engine

radiation fog

radio stack

radiosonde

rate of climb

rating

rawinsonde observation

recreational pilot certificate

relative humidity

relative wind

retreating blade stall

Richard Whitcomb

ridge

ridge lift

rigid rotor system

rime ice

roll

roll cloud

rotary engine

rotation

rotation speed (VR)

rotor cloud

rudder

runway visual range (RVR)

S

sailplane

saturated adiabatic lapse rate

scud

sea fog

semimonocoque

semi-rigid rotor system

settling with power

severe icing

severe turbulence

shock wave

shower

sink rate

skid

slat

slewing

slip

spin

spoilers

spool up

squall

squall line

stability

stability (atmospheric)

stall

stall speed

standard atmosphere

standard conditions

standard pressure

standard rate turn

standard temperature

standardized instrument cluster

stationary front

statute mile (sm)

steady state flight

steam fog

STOL

stratiform

stratocumulus

stratosphere

stratus cloud

student pilot certificate

sublimation

subsonic

supercharger

supercooled water

supersonic

surface inversion

surface visibility

T

tachometer

takeoff roll

taxi

temperature layer

temperature–dewpoint spread

thermal

threshold

throttle

thrust

thunderstorm

tower visibility

towering cumulus

trace icing

trade winds

traffic pattern

translating tendency

translational lift

transmissometer

transonic

transponder

transverse flow effect

tricycle-gear

trim

tropopause

troposphere

trough

true airspeed (TAS)

true altitude

true north

turbocharger

turbofan

turbojet

turboprop

turn coordinator

TWEB

type certificate

type rating

U

ultralight

uncontrolled airspace

uncoordinated flight

undercast

updraft

upslope fog

UTC (Coordinated Universal Time)

V

vertical axis

vertical speed indicator (VSI)

vertical stabilizer

vertigo

Very High Frequency (VHF)

very high-frequency omnidirectional range (VOR)

virga

visual flight rules (VFR)

visual meteorological conditions (VMC)

vortices

VTOL

W

wake turbulence

Walter Beech

warm front

weather areas

weathervane effect

weight

William Powell Lear

wind layer

wind shear

wind tunnel

wing loading

winglets

wingtip vortex

Wright brothers

X

Y

yaw

Z

zeppelin


Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook
	Bell 206B JetRanger III Helicopter Operating Handbook This section of Help includes detailed information about the Bell 206B JetRanger III, including: • Specifications and performance data • Operating checklists • Basic operating procedures For more information about helicopter aerodynamics and general guidelines for flying helicopters, see the topics in "Basics of Helicopter Flight" in the Ground School section of Help. Checklists You can view simplified checklists and flying tips for takeoffs, landings, and other basic situations as you fly. Press SHIFT+C to display and cycle through the available checklists or click Checklists on the Aircraft menu and then select the specific checklist you want to see. NOTE: The speeds used in Flight Simulator checklists, operating procedures, and in the Aircraft Handbooks are indicated airspeeds unless otherwise noted. Flight Simulator displays indicated airspeed by default for a more realistic flying experience. To display true airspeed instead, choose Preferences from the Options menu and clear the Display Indicated Airspeed option on the Instrument tab of the Preferences dialog box. Related Topics Bell 206B JetRanger III: History Bell 206B JetRanger III: Performance Specifications Basics of Helicopter Flight Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick


Bell 206B JetRanger III: History
	Bell 206B JetRanger III: History The Bell 206B JetRanger III was developed from the OH-4, a prototype observation helicopter that lost a U.S. Army competition in 1965. From that inauspicious beginning emerged the most widely used commercial helicopter in service today. The Model 206A JetRanger earned its U.S. certification on October 20, 1966, and customer deliveries began in January of 1967. The Model 206B JetRanger III was introduced in 1977. Today, more than 8,000 JetRangers are in service around the world, and more are in production. The current model, the Bell 206B JetRanger III, transports workers and equipment to oil rigs, carries critically ill accident victims to hospitals, ferries executives to and from manufacturing sites, and provides an eye in the sky for TV stations and police departments. As the OH-58 and OH-58D Kiowa Warrior, the JetRanger remains a part of the U.S. Army's fleet of rotorcraft, and the TH-67 and TH-57 models are the primary training helicopters for both the U.S. Army and the U.S. Navy. In fact, all helicopter pilots trained by the U.S. military learned to fly in a Bell 206B. Related Topics Bell 206B JetRanger III: Performance Specifications Bell 206B JetRanger III: Starting Checklist Basics of Helicopter Flight Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick


Bell 206B JetRanger III: Performance Specifications
	Bell 206B JetRanger III: Performance Specifications The Bell 206B JetRanger III is one of the most popular general-purpose helicopters ever built. It is a single-pilot, five-place (4-passenger), single-engine, light helicopter. The aircraft is equipped with an Allison Model 250-C20B or 250-C20J turbine engine capable of producing 420-shaft horsepower (SHP); however, the engine is flat-rated to 317 SHP (236 kW). It is coupled to a transmission through a freewheeling unit and main drive shaft. The Bell 206B JetRanger III has a two-blade, teetering underslung, semi-rigid main rotor and a tail rotor to provide directional control. The fuselage is covered by metal and fiberglass. An all-metal tail boom supports the vertical fin, fixed horizontal stabilizer, tail rotor, and tail rotor drive train. The aircraft has tubular steel landing skids and can be equipped with pop-out or fixed floats for water operations. Basic Specifications and Performance Data Engine Allison Model 250-C20B or 250-C20J turbine 420 SHP flat-rated to 317 SHP (236 kW) Maximum Continuous Power 85% Torque (270 hp) Maximum Power (5 minutes) 100% Torque Maximum Takeoff Power 100% Torque (317 hp) Normal Cruise Power 80% Torque Maximum Rotor RPM (power on) 100% Minimum Rotor RPM (power on) 97% Maximum Rotor RPM (power off) 107% Minimum Rotor RPM (power off) 90% Seats 5 Length 31.29 ft (9.54 m) Height 11.63 ft (3.54 m) Rotor Span 33.33 ft (10.16 m) Skid Width 6.28 ft (1.91 m) Empty Weight 1750 lbs (794 kg) Maximum Gross Weight 3,200 lbs (1451.5 kg) Useful Load 1,450 lbs (658 kg) Maximum Operating Altitude 20,000 ft (6096 m) @ 3,000 lbs (1360 kg) Maximum Speed 130 knots (241 km/h) Maximum Rate of Climb about 1,300 fpm (396 m/min) Normal Operating Speed 0–130 knots (0–241 km/h) Fuel Capacity 91 gal (344.5 l) Average Fuel Consumption @ 105 knots 260–285 lbs/hr 38–42 gal/hr 144–159 l/hr Related Topics Bell 206B JetRanger III: Starting Checklist Bell 206B JetRanger III: Emergency Checklists


Bell 206B JetRanger III: Starting Checklist
	Bell 206B JetRanger III: Starting Checklist Before Starting Engine Preflight inspection COMPLETE Doors SECURE Cockpit equipment SECURE Passenger briefing COMPLETE Seatbelts ADJUST and LOCK Fuel quantity CHECK Flight controls FREE and CORRECT MOVEMENT Pedals ADJUST and CENTER Cyclic CENTER Collective DOWN Throttle CLOSE Electrical equipment OFF Fuel quantity CHECK Fuel valve switch ON Instruments CHECK Altimeter SET Caution lights CHECK Starting Engine Rotating beacon ON Collective FULL DOWN Throttle CLOSE Rotors CLEAR AND UNTIED Starter ENGAGE AND HOLD Throttle SET FLIGHT IDLE AT 12–15% N1 Engine instruments CHECK Starter DISENGAGE AT 58% N1 Throttle STABILIZE FOR ONE MINUTE Electrical equipment ON Related Topics Bell 206B JetRanger III: Before Takeoff Checklist Bell 206B JetRanger III: Takeoff/Climb Checklists Bell 206B JetRanger III: Emergency Checklists Bell 206B JetRanger III: Performance Specifications


Bell 206B JetRanger III: Before Takeoff Checklist
	Bell 206B JetRanger III: Before Takeoff Checklist Fuel quantity CHECK Electrical equipment CHECK Lights AS REQUIRED Radios and avionics SET Flight instruments SET AND CHECK Throttle FULL OPEN (Do not exceed 40% torque) Engine instruments CHECK Power turbine RPM SET AT 100% Flight controls CHECK Clearance VERIFY Related Topics Bell 206B JetRanger III: Takeoff/Climb Checklists Bell 206B JetRanger III: Cruise/Descent/Landing Checklists Bell 206B JetRanger III: Emergency Checklists Bell 206B JetRanger III: Performance Specifications


Bell 206B JetRanger III: Takeoff Checklist
	Bell 206B JetRanger III: Takeoff Checklist Takeoff Throttle FULL OPEN Collective INCREASE TO HOVER (Approximately 70% torque) Engine instruments CHECK Directional control AS REQUIRED Collective APPLY AS REQUIRED TO OBTAIN RATE OF CLIMB AND AIRSPEED Related Topics Bell 206B JetRanger III: Cruise/Descent/Landing Checklists Bell 206B JetRanger III: Emergency Checklists Bell 206B JetRanger III: Performance Specifications


Bell 206B JetRanger III: Cruise/Descent/Landing Checklists
	Bell 206B JetRanger III: Cruise/Descent/Landing Checklists Cruise Airspeed AS DESIRED BELOW 130 KNOTS Pitot heat ON IN VISIBLE MOISTURE BELOW 4.4°C Engine instruments CHECK (Normal cruise power is 80% torque) Fuel quantity CHECK Altimeter SET and CHECK Nav/Com radios TUNE and SET Descent and Landing ATIS/Airport information CHECK Approach briefing COMPLETE Altimeter SET and CHECK Nav/Com radios TUNE and SET Fuel quantity CHECK Lights AS REQUIRED Rotor RPM 100% All instruments CHECK NORMAL OPERATING RANGE Related Topics Bell 206B JetRanger III: Engine Shutdown Checklist Bell 206B JetRanger III: Emergency Checklists Bell 206B JetRanger III: Performance Specifications


Bell 206B JetRanger III: Engine Shutdown Checklist
	Bell 206B JetRanger III: Engine Shutdown Checklist Collective CHECK FULL DOWN Cyclic CENTER Throttle FLIGHT IDLE Engine STABILIZE AT FLIGHT IDLE FOR TWO MINUTES Radios OFF Electrical equipment OFF Throttle FULLY CLOSED Lights OFF Fuel valve OFF Battery switch OFF Related Topics Bell 206B JetRanger III: Emergency Checklists Bell 206B JetRanger III: Performance Specifications


Bell 206B JetRanger III: Emergency Checklists
	Bell 206B JetRanger III: Emergency Checklists Engine Failure in Flight (Autorotation) Collective ADJUST TO MAINTAIN ROTOR RPM 90–107% Airspeed 50–60 KIAS DO NOT EXCEED 100 KIAS Landing area SELECT At low altitude CLOSE THROTTLE AND FLARE; APPLY COLLECTIVE PITCH Touchdown PRIOR TO PASSING THROUGH 70% ROTOR RPM Fuel THROTTLE CLOSED FUEL VALVE OFF After landing ALL SWITCHES OFF Tail Rotor Failure Autorotation REDUCE THROTTLE TO FLIGHT IDLE ESTABLISH (MINIMUM AIRSPEED 50 KIAS) Related Topics Bell 206B JetRanger III: Engine Shutdown Checklist Bell 206B JetRanger III: Performance Specifications


Bell 206B JetRanger III Instrument Panel
	Bell 206B JetRanger III: Instrument Panel The Bell 206B JetRanger III instrument panel and radio stack occupy the lower half of the Flight Simulator screen. The displays and controls are arranged in the standard configuration for helicopters of this type. The six primary flight instruments show airspeed, attitude, altitude, rate and quality of turn, heading (on the HSI), and rate of climb or descent. The engine instruments are arranged in two columns on the left side of the main instrument panel. The Bendix/King radio stack—the communications and navigation radios, DME, transponder, and ADF—appears in a pop-up window when you click Instrument Panel on the Views menu and then click Bendix/King Radio Stack. The instrument panel also includes control position indicators specific to Flight Simulator. What's This? To learn the name of an instrument or control, point to it; after a brief pause, a label appears. For a more detailed explanation, click the instrument or control with the right mouse button and choose What's This? from the menu. Related Topics Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments The Pitot Static Instruments Basics of Helicopter Flight Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick


Bell 206B JetRanger III: Hovering
	Bell 206B JetRanger III: Hovering A helicopter can hover close to the ground (in ground effect) or at a higher altitude, depending on the aircraft's weight and the current density altitude. Hovering in Ground Effect To hover in ground effect, keep the skids of the Bell 206B JetRanger III at 3 ft (1 m) AGL. At higher altitudes, the helicopter's performance drops significantly and the risk of damage and injury increases if the engine fails. Power Required Under typical weather conditions and operating weights, you'll need 70–75 percent torque to hover and hover taxi. If you lift the skids more than about 3 ft (1 m) above the ground, the helicopter effectively flies out of ground effect, and you'll need about 10 percent more power to maintain a hover. Keep in mind that under certain conditions the helicopter may not be able to hover out of ground effect. Using the Flight Controls Remember that the cyclic controls the direction in which the helicopter moves. Use small, smooth adjustments of the collective to maintain the proper altitude. To keep the nose straight, apply pressure to the left or right anti-torque pedal. Use small, smooth, and coordinated movements of all the controls to maintain the hover. For example, if you increase power, you must also add left anti-torque pedal, and you may also need to move the cyclic to keep the helicopter from drifting out of position. NOTE: The topics about helicopter aerodynamics and controls assume that the aircraft's main rotor turns left, or counter-clockwise, when viewed from above. Helicopters manufactured in the U.S. have this type of main rotor. However, many helicopters made in Europe have main rotors that turn to the right, or clockwise, when viewed from above. If you are flying a European-made helicopter, you must reverse the pedal inputs and some cyclic inputs described in these topics. Related Topics Bell 206B JetRanger III: Starting Checklist Basics of Helicopter Flight Hovering Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick


Bell 206B JetRanger III: Taxiing
	Bell 206B JetRanger III: Taxiing Because the Bell 206B JetRanger III is equipped with skids, you should hover taxi or air taxi between the aircraft parking area and the takeoff or landing area. For general information about taxiing helicopters, see the topic "Taxiing" in the Ground School section of Help. Operating Guidelines Under typical weather conditions and operating weights, you'll need 70–75 percent torque to hover and hover taxi. If you raise the landing skids more than about 3 ft (1 m) above the ground, the helicopter effectively flies out of ground effect, and you'll need more power to maintain a hover. Related Topics Helicopter Taxiing Basics of Helicopter Flight Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick


Bell 206B JetRanger III: Takeoffs
	Bell 206B JetRanger III: Takeoffs A normal takeoff in the Bell 206B JetRanger III begins with a liftoff to a hover in ground effect. During a takeoff remember to use smooth, small control inputs—good advice during any maneuver. For general information about taking off in a helicopter, see the topic "Helicopter Takeoffs" in the Ground School section of Help. Taking Off to a Hover • First, note the wind direction and speed. If possible, plan to take off directly into the wind to minimize sideways drift and to increase the helicopter's performance during takeoff and climb. Remember that wind blowing through the main rotor disk has the same effect as airspeed. For example, if the helicopter is facing into a 10- to 15-knot wind, the rotor experiences effective translation lift even when the aircraft is on the surface. • When you're ready to make a vertical takeoff, note a point in the distance (for example, a tall building). Use that point and the outside horizon as references to help you maintain the helicopter's alignment and attitude as you lift off. • Set the cyclic in an approximately neutral position. Set the collective full down. • Smoothly and slowly raise the collective. The helicopter should become light on the skids as you reach 60–70 percent torque. Ease into this range smoothly and slowly. • As the helicopter's weight comes off the skids, it will start to drift and turn to the right. Hold the collective steady at this point and use slight left cyclic pressure to hold the helicopter in position. Apply left pedal pressure to compensate for the torque from the main rotor. • Keep your attention outside the helicopter and focus on the horizon. To continue the lift off, smoothly increase the collective. • Anticipate the need to add left pedal as you lift off and make small, smooth corrections with the cyclic and pedals to maintain heading and position. • Hold the helicopter skids about 3 ft (1 m) above the ground. You want to stay low in case the engine fails and to keep the helicopter in ground effect. You'll probably need 70–75 percent torque to maintain the hover. Use the collective to maintain altitude. Maintain the correct attitude with light, small cyclic pressures, and use the anti-torque pedals to keep the helicopter's nose from rotating. • Anticipate corrections to compensate for wind. You'll need slight forward cyclic pressure if you take off into a headwind, left pressure with a left crosswind, and so forth. • When you're ready to continue the takeoff, gently apply a small amount of forward cyclic to lower the nose and begin moving forward along the departure path. The helicopter may tend to settle as you start forward. Compensate by adding slight up collective. • As airspeed reaches 10–15 knots, the helicopter enters effective translational lift. The nose tends to yaw left and pitch up slightly. Apply some forward cyclic to prevent the nose from rising. Add some left lateral cyclic to prevent the helicopter from drifting right, and apply right pedal pressure to maintain heading. The helicopter will continue climbing and accelerating. • Continue the takeoff by flying a modified traffic pattern. Climb straight ahead at 60 knots to 300 ft (90 m). The helicopter should be in a nearly nose-level attitude. To correct for a crosswind, use a slip while at or below 50 ft (15 m) AGL. At higher altitudes, crab into the wind to maintain the proper track over ground. • Turn 90 degrees left (standard traffic pattern) or right to the crosswind leg. Maintain 60 knots and continue the climb to 500 ft (150 m). To accelerate and maintain rate of climb, increase collective and add slight forward cyclic. On the crosswind leg, depart the traffic pattern or return for another landing by turning 90 degrees again to join the downwind leg. Related Topics Bell 206B JetRanger III: Before Takeoff Checklist Bell 206B JetRanger III: Takeoff/Climb Checklists The Traffic Pattern Basics of Helicopter Flight Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick


Bell 206B JetRanger III: Climbs
	Bell 206B JetRanger III: Climbs The Bell 206B JetRanger III can achieve a maximum rate of climb of about 1,300 feet per minute at sea level under standard weather conditions. The aircraft's best rate of climb airspeed is 52 knots. However, 60 knots is a good climb speed because it's also the speed to use during autorotation if the engine fails. Power Required For a more normal, comfortable climb, adjust the collective for a torque setting about 10 percent above that required to maintain a hover in ground effect. Under standard conditions and at typical operating weights, you'll need 80–85 percent torque for a normal climb. Use the cyclic to set a pitch attitude that maintains an airspeed of about 60 knots. Note that as you climb, the engine produces less power. As a rule of thumb, expect torque to drop 3 percent per 1,000 ft (305 m) of altitude gained. Monitor the engine instruments and smoothly add collective to maintain climb power as your altitude increases. Basic Considerations Keep the following considerations in mind as you climb: • Use the collective to control power and the rate of the climb. • Monitor engine instruments closely to ensure that you stay within operating limits. • Maintain attitude and airspeed by looking out to the horizon. Focusing on a point too close to the nose makes it difficult to maintain the proper aircraft attitude. • Use the cyclic to control airspeed (and the helicopter's attitude) and the anti-torque pedals to maintain heading or to establish a crab angle to fly a constant ground track, as appropriate. • Use the anti-torque pedals to maintain trim, or coordinated flight. A slip or skid severely degrades climb performance. Leveling Off To level off from a climb, start decreasing collective about 50 ft (15 m) below the altitude at which you want to level off. Add right anti-torque pedal as you decrease torque to the cruise setting (about 80 percent torque). Use the cyclic to maintain cruising airspeed. Apply forward cyclic to increase speed, aft cyclic to slow down. Related Topics Bell 206B JetRanger III: Takeoff/Climb Checklists Basics of Helicopter Flight Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick


Bell 206B JetRanger III: Cruising Flight
	Bell 206B JetRanger III: Cruising Flight Under typical conditions, you should set the collective to 80 percent torque for efficient cruising flight. At this power setting, 5 percent below the maximum allowed continuous power setting, the Bell 206B JetRanger III typically cruises at about 105 knots while burning 25–28 gal/hour (94–106 l/hour). General Procedures • To maintain the desired track over the ground, use the anti-torque pedals to turn the helicopter into the wind and establish the correct crab angle. • To turn, use the cyclic to bank the helicopter. • Use the anti-torque pedals to keep the helicopter in trim—that is, in coordinated flight. If the inclinometer in the turn coordinator shows a slip or a skid, apply left or right pedal pressure as necessary to center the ball. • Monitor engine instruments closely to ensure that you stay within operating limits. Remember that applying left anti-torque pedal causes an increase in torque; applying right pedal decreases torque. Related Topics Bell 206B JetRanger III: Cruise/Descent Checklists Straight-and-Level Flight Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick


Bell 206B JetRanger III: Descents
	Bell 206B JetRanger III: Descents To descend at a comfortable rate without building too much speed you must decrease power by lowering the collective. Anticipate the need for right anti-torque pedal as you decrease torque. The nose drops as you lower collective, so remember that you'll need to add a little aft cyclic to maintain the correct pitch attitude and airspeed. Don't add too much aft cyclic, however—the aircraft will climb. Note that as you descend, the engine produces more power. As a rule of thumb, expect torque to increase 3 percent per 1,000 ft (305 m) of descent. Monitor the engine instruments and smoothly reduce collective to maintain descent power as your altitude decreases. Leveling Off To level off from a descent, start increasing collective about 50 ft (15 m) above the altitude at which you want to level off. Add left anti-torque pedal as you increase torque to the cruise setting (about 80 percent torque). Use the cyclic to maintain cruising airspeed. Apply forward cyclic to increase speed, aft cyclic to slow down. Related Topics Bell 206B JetRanger III: Cruise/Descent Checklists Straight-and-Level Flight Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick


Bell 206B JetRanger III: Landings
	Bell 206B JetRanger III: Landings To land the JetRanger III, reverse the procedure for a normal takeoff. That is, fly an approach from a 500 ft (150 m) traffic pattern, enter a hover at about 3 ft (1 m) above the ground, and then slowly and smoothly lower the aircraft to the ground. Following this procedure helps you establish good habits, and makes it easier to achieve smooth, consistent landings. Normal Approach Procedure • Review the landing checklist. • Fly a modified traffic pattern that avoids the flow of fixed-wing traffic. • During the first half of the approach, decrease power by lowering the collective. During the second half of the approach you must smoothly increase power to arrive at the 3-ft (1 m) hover just as you set hover power, usually 70–75 percent torque. • Fly the downwind leg at 500 ft (150 m) at 100 knots. Turn to the base leg, decelerate to 70 knots, and then descend to 300 ft (90 m). Turn final at 300 ft (90 m) and decelerate to 52–60 knots. • A descent angle of 10–12 degrees provides good obstacle clearance and helps you keep the landing area in sight. • Adjust the collective to control rate of descent. Increase collective to reduce rate of descent; lower the collective slightly to increase rate of descent. • Use the cyclic to adjust the rate of closure with your landing spot. Apply slight aft cyclic to reduce the rate of closure; forward pressure increases the rate of closure. The ideal rate is that of a normal walk. • Continue the approach until the rate of closure with the landing spot accelerates. Begin dissipating forward speed by applying smooth, slight back pressure on the cyclic. As you decelerate, anticipate the need to decrease collective to maintain altitude. • As airspeed drops to 10–15 knots, the aircraft will lose effective translational lift (ETL). You must add up collective to compensate for the loss of lift. You'll also need to add left anti-torque pedal pressure as you increase collective pitch. •  Transition to the hover over the landing spot. Enter a 3-ft (1 m) hover over the spot where you want to land. Landing From a Hover When you are established in a stable, 3-ft (1 m) stationary hover, you can complete the landing. • Ease the collective down a slight amount. Anticipate the need to add right anti-torque pedal pressure as you decrease torque. • Stop any drift by applying small, smooth pressure to the cyclic. If you start to drift, stop downward movement by holding the collective steady or by applying slight up collective pressure. Do not, however, lift back up to 3 ft (1 m) each time you start to drift. Just stop the downward movement until you compensate for drift. • Looking out at the horizon, keep lowering the helicopter until you make ground contact. After the skids touch down, continue moving the collective down slowly to transfer the aircraft's weight to the skids. Keep using small, smooth inputs on the cyclic to prevent drift as the helicopter settles. • Make sure the helicopter is stable as you move the collective to the full down position. Move the cyclic slightly to confirm that the helicopter is firmly seated on the ground. Related Topics Bell 206B JetRanger III:Cruise/Descent/Landing Checklists The Traffic Pattern Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick


Bell 206B JetRanger III: Autorotations
	Bell 206B JetRanger III: Autorotations Autorotation in a helicopter is the equivalent of a power-off glide in an airplane. The following procedures will help you land the Bell 206B JetRanger III after a real or simulated engine failure. For more information about autorotations, see the topic "Autorotation" in the Ground School section of Help. General Procedures During autorotation, it's most important to maintain rotor RPM so you have lift available to cushion the landing. You must also maintain the correct forward speed so that you can reach a suitable landing area and allow you to flare to reduce the rate of descent before ground contact. In the Bell 206B JetRanger III, the best glide angle is about 4 to 1. That is, the helicopter can fly forward 4 ft for every foot of altitude lost. To achieve this glide ratio and travel the greatest distance, maintain 69 knots, the maximum distance glide speed. To descend at the minimum sink rate, fly at 52 knots. You won't cover as much distance, but you'll stay in the air for a longer time. You may want to use the minimum sink airspeed if you're directly over a landing area. Autorotation in the Bell 206B JetRanger III Here are some tips to help you fly the JetRanger III in an autorotation: • If the engine fails you must decrease collective smoothly and immediately to preserve and maintain rotor RPM. Remember, however, that if you abruptly lower the collective, the helicopter will develop a high sink rate. Establish a glide at 52–69 knots, depending on your selected landing area. • At 75–50 ft, apply gentle aft cyclic to establish about a 10-degree nose-up attitude until approximately 15 ft (5 m) above the ground, then after ground speed is reduced, apply forward cyclic to level the helicopter. Cushion the landing by adding collective pitch as required. To maintain heading, you'll need to add right pedal as you apply collective pitch because mechanical drag in the transmission yaws the nose left. (If you are practicing autorotations and recovering with power, you must add left pedal as you increase power.) • Make sure you land with the helicopter level and with little or no forward speed or drift. • After ground contact, center the cyclic and gently lower the collective. • Remember this sequence: Flare, pitch, level, and cushion. Straight-In Autorotation To practice a straight-in autorotation, use the following procedure: • Enter the traffic pattern at 500 feet and 70–105 knots. • Close the throttle to flight idle. • Smoothly but quickly lower the collective to the full-down position. Apply a slight amount of aft cyclic pressure to keep the nose from dropping and to decelerate to 52–69 knots. Do not, however, jerk the cyclic back and forth, chasing the airspeed. Establish the pitch attitude that maintains about 60 knots. • Keep the helicopter in trim with pedal pressure. Control drift with the cyclic. Make sure the skids are straight before entering the flare. • At about 75 ft (23 m), keep your eyes on the landing spot so you can judge the rate of closure. Begin the final deceleration and flare by smoothly increasing aft cyclic pressure. You should be 10–15 ft (3–4 m) above the ground as the helicopter starts to settle. • As the helicopter settles toward the ground, make sure you establish a level pitch attitude. Smoothly apply up collective to reduce sink rate and cushion the touchdown. Apply right pedal to keep the nose absolutely straight. Use cyclic pressure as necessary during this transition to keep the aircraft level and compensate for drift. Autorotation With 180-Degree Turn Practicing an autorotation with a 180-degree turn develops your ability to plan ahead and control the helicopter smoothly and precisely. • Begin this maneuver at 500 ft (150 m) and 70–105 knots. • Establish a downwind leg 150–250 feet from the landing area. • Abeam your intended landing spot, enter the autorotation by moving the collective to the full down position. • Turn to the base leg as you stabilize in the autorotation. Remember to use the cyclic, not the pedals, to turn. Use the pedals to maintain coordinated flight. A slip or a skid causes a drop in airspeed, increases sink rate, and shortens the glide. • Use the cyclic to maintain the proper descent attitude and airspeed (about 60 knots(). Look out toward the horizon to help you maintain the proper attitude. • Roll out on final with the cyclic, and complete the deceleration, flare, and touchdown as in a straight-in autorotation. Related Topics Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick


Bell 206B JetRanger III: Quick Stops
	Bell 206B JetRanger III: Quick Stops A quick stop is a rapid transition from normal flight to a hover. This maneuver teaches coordination and timing. General Procedure Here are some general tips to help you fly quick stops in the JetRanger III: • Plan all practice runs into the wind. Never practice quick stops downwind. • Begin the maneuver from a normal hover at about 3 ft (1 m) above ground level. • Start a normal climb while accelerating to 45 knots. • Level off at 25 feet (8 m). Begin the deceleration to a hover by applying back pressure on the cyclic. Simultaneously lower the collective to maintain altitude. As you lower the collective, anticipate the need for right pedal pressure to maintain heading. • Keep watching the horizon. Don't focus on a point too close to the helicopter. Related Topics Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick


Bell 206B JetRanger III: Instrument Approaches
	Bell 206B JetRanger III: Instrument Approaches Instrument approaches in the Bell 206B JetRanger III are, as in any aircraft, just a combination of flying straight-and-level, turning, descending, and climbing. Before you try to fly instrument approaches in the helicopter, make sure that you've mastered those basic skills under visual conditions first. General Guidelines Each instrument approach presents unique challenges, but the following guidelines may help you fly smooth, accurate instrument approaches. • Plan to fly most approaches at 90 knots. To fly straight-and-level at this speed, use the collective to set at about hover power, usually 70–75 percent torque. • As you descend on an ILS glide slope or to the minimum descent altitude on a non-precision approach, make small adjustments with the cyclic to control rate of descent. • Make small adjustments of the cyclic to maintain airspeed. • Use the anti-torque pedals to keep the helicopter in coordinated flight. Related Topics Instrument Landing System (ILS) Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick


Boeing 737-400: Introduction
	Boeing 737-400: Introduction The Boeing 737 in its many versions has become the most popular jet transport in the world, with more than 3,000 in service around the world and hundreds more on order. This small twinjet is used on primarily short- and medium-range routes. It’s often the first jet transport that new airline pilots fly. This section of Help includes detailed information about the Boeing 737-400, including: • Specifications and performance data • Cockpit and instrumentation • Operating checklists • Basic operating procedures To brush up on your basic knowledge of aerodynamics, aircraft controls, instruments, engines, and systems, see the topics in the Flight School section of Help. Checklists You can view simplified checklists and flying tips for takeoffs, landings, and other basic situations as you fly. Click Checklists on the Aircraft menu and then select the specific checklist you want to see. NOTE: The speeds used in Flight Simulator checklists, operating procedures, and in the Aircraft Handbooks are indicated airspeeds unless otherwise noted. Flight Simulator displays indicated airspeed by default for a more realistic flying experience. To display true airspeed instead, choose Preferences from the Options menu and clear the Display Indicated Airspeed option on the Instrument tab of the Preferences dialog box. Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Cockpit Orientation Boeing 737-400: Performance Specifications Flying the Boeing 737-400: Introduction


Boeing 737-400: History
	Boeing 737-400: History The Boeing Company has turned out one successful “7” after another. From the 707, one of the first jet transports, to the high-tech 777, Boeing has often led the market in both performance and production. The 707 doubled the speed and capacity of earlier piston-powered transports, the 727 and 737 dominated short- and medium-range markets, and the 747 inaugurated the age of the jumbo jet. The twinjet 737, introduced in 1967, has become the most popular jet transport in history. Flying throughout the world today, it is currently produced as the 737-300, the 737-400 stretched version, and the 737-500 short-body version. The first 737-400 rolled out of the factory on January 26, 1988, and the first passenger version entered service on September 15 of that year. It is available in basic and long-range versions. The 737-400 typically accommodates 146 passengers in mixed class, 159 in all-tourist and 168 in inclusive-tour charter configurations. Related Topics Flying the Boeing 737-400: Introduction Boeing 737-400: Cockpit Orientation Boeing 737-400: Performance Specifications


Boeing 737-400: Performance and Specifications
	Boeing 737-400: Performance Specifications All speeds in the following table are indicated airspeeds in knots unless noted otherwise. Engines CFM56-3B or CFM56-3C high-bypass turbofans rated at 22,000 lb (97.86 kN) or 23,500 pounds (105 kN) thrust each Passengers Up to 188 Length 119.6 ft (36.4 m) Height 36.5 ft (11.13 m) Wingspan 94.8 ft (28.9 m) Aspect ratio 7.91 Max takeoff weight 138,500 pounds (62,820 kg) to 150,000 pounds (68,040 kg) Max usable fuel 5,311 gallons (20,104 L) 36,114 lb (16,381 kg) Max pressurization differential 8.65 lb/sq in. Max operating speed 0.82 Mach Cruise speed at FL 370 0.74 Mach Landing approach speed ~140 knots (161 mph, 259 km/h) Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Prestart Checklist Boeing 737-400: Engine Start Checklist Boeing 737-400: Taxi Checklist Flying the Boeing 737-400: Introduction


Boeing 737-400:Cockpit Orientation
	Boeing 737-400: Cockpit Orientation The Boeing 737-400 instrument panel and radio stack occupy the lower half of the Flight Simulator screen. The displays and controls are arranged in the standard configuration for modern jet transport. If you know your way around the cockpit of a small piston-engine aircraft like the Cessna Skylane RG, you’ll find the Boeing 737-400 basically familiar, with a few new instruments, displays, and controls. The 737-400 instrument panel in Flight Simulator includes engine gauges and other instruments used in real aircraft, plus control position indicators specific to Flight Simulator. Basic Flight Instruments The primary flight instruments directly in front of you show airspeed, attitude, altitude, rate and quality of turn, heading, and rate of climb or descent. The attitude indicator has additional displays that show airspeed and altitude on vertical “tapes” on the left and right of the main display. Electronic Navigation Instruments The horizontal situation indicator (HSI) is directly below the attitude indicator. It provides a top-down view of your position relative to a VOR radial or an ILS localizer and glide slope. It’s a more sophisticated version of the basic VOR/ILS display found in smaller aircraft. Engine Instruments The primary engine instruments occupy the center of the panel. Radios You can display the communications and navigation radios in a separate window. On the Views menu, click Instrument Panel, and then click Radio Stack. The control for the communications radio is on top, followed by the controls for the two navigation radios, the ADF, and the transponder. Engine, Flaps, Brakes, and Landing Gear The engine, flap, and spoiler/speed brake controls are in the lower-right section of the instrument panel. The landing gear control and indicator are on the upper-right side of the instrument panel. Autopilot The autopilot controls are located in the top middle section of the instrument panel. What’s This? To learn the name of an instrument or control, point to it; after a brief pause, a label appears. For a more detailed explanation, click the instrument or control with the right mouse button and choose What’s This? from the menu. Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Performance Specifications Flying the Boeing 737-400: Introduction Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments The Pitot Static Instruments Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Turbine Engine Controls


Boeing 737-400: Prestart Checklist
	Boeing 737-400: Prestart Checklist Preflight inspection COMPLETE Passenger briefing COMPLETE Seats, belts, shoulder harnesses ADJUST and LOCK Instrument lights AS REQUIRED Spoilers/speed brakes DOWN Flight controls FREE and CORRECT MOVEMENT Landing gear selector DOWN Brakes TEST and SET Electrical equipment OFF Autopilot OFF Fuel quantity CHECK Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Engine Start Checklist Boeing 737-400: Taxi Checklist Boeing 737-400: Before Takeoff Checklist Flying the Boeing 737-400: Introduction


Boeing 737-400: Engine Start Checklist
	Boeing 737-400: Engine Start Checklist Lights ON Thrust levers CLOSED Engine area CLEAR Engine start switches START Radios ON Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Taxi Checklist Boeing 737-400: Before Takeoff Checklist Boeing 737-400: Takeoff Checklist Boeing 737-400: Setting Flaps, Power, and Trim


Boeing 737-400:Taxi Checklist
	Boeing 737-400: Taxi Checklist Brakes CHECK Flight instruments CHECK and SET Spoilers/speed brakes DOWN Flight controls CHECK Flaps 5 degrees Trim SET FOR TAKEOFF Engine instruments CHECK Radios/Transponder SET and CHECK Clearance VERIFY Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Before Takeoff Checklist Boeing 737-400: Takeoff Checklist Boeing 737-400: Climb Checklist Flying the Boeing 737-400: Introduction


Boeing 737-400: Before Takeoff Checklist
	Boeing 737-400: Before Takeoff Checklist Seats, belts, harnesses SECURE COM and NAV radios SET Transponder ON Pitot heat ON Lights/Strobes AS REQUIRED Flaps 5 degrees Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Takeoff Checklist Boeing 737-400: Climb Checklist Boeing 737-400: Cruise Checklist Boeing 737-400: Takeoff


Boeing 737-400: Takeoff Checklist
	Boeing 737-400: Takeoff Checklist Thrust levers TAKEOFF POWER (N1 <=100%) Landing gear RETRACT Flaps UP Power CLIMB POWER SET Speed  250 KIAS below 10,000 ft MSL Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Takeoff Boeing 737-400: Cruise Checklist Boeing 737-400: Descent/Approach Checklist Boeing 737-400: Before Landing Checklist Boeing 737-400: After Landing Checklist Boeing 737-400: Shutdown Checklist


Boeing 737-400: Climb Checklist
	Boeing 737-400: Climb Checklist Speed 250 knots or Mach 0.74 Altimeter SET 29.92" (1,013 mb) at transition altitude (FL 180 in U.S.) Autopilot CHECK and SET Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Climbs Boeing 737-400: Descent/Approach Checklist Boeing 737-400: Before Landing Checklist Boeing 737-400: After Landing Checklist Boeing 737-400: Shutdown Checklist Boeing 737-400: Emergency Checklists


Boeing 737-400: Cruise
	Boeing 737-400: Cruise Checklist Power SET for Mach 0.74 Elevator trim ADJUST Engine instruments/Ammeter CHECK Fuel quantity CHECK Altimeter SET and CHECK Radios TUNE and SET Autopilot CHECK and SET Lights AS REQUIRED Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Cruising Boeing 737-400: Descent/Approach Checklist Boeing 737-400: Before Landing Checklist Boeing 737-400: After Landing Checklist Boeing 737-400: Shutdown Checklist Boeing 737-400: Emergency Checklists


Boeing 737-400: Descent/Approach Checklist
	Boeing 737-400: Descent/Approach Checklist ATIS/Airport information CHECK Approach briefing COMPLETE Altimeter SET and CHECKED Radios TUNED and SET Fuel quantity CHECK Power SET Lights AS REQUIRED Landing speed (Vref) COMPUTED (~140 knots) Spoilers/speed brakes RETRACTED Flaps 1-5 < 250 KIAS 10-15 < 215 KIAS 25 < 190 KIAS 30 < 162 KIAS Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Descending Boeing 737-400: Before Landing Checklist Boeing 737-400: After Landing Checklist Boeing 737-400: Shutdown Checklist Boeing 737-400: Emergency Checklists


Boeing 737-400: Before Landing Checklist
	Boeing 737-400: Before Landing Checklist Seats, belts, harnesses SECURE Autopilot OFF Landing gear DOWN (<270 KIAS) Flaps DOWN Airspeed Vref (~140 KIAS) Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Approaches Boeing 737-400: Final Approach and Landing Boeing 737-400: After Landing Checklist Boeing 737-400: Shutdown Checklist Boeing 737-400: Emergency Checklists


Boeing 737-400: After Landing
	Boeing 737-400: After Landing Checklist Reverse thrust UNTIL SPEED 60 KNOTS Spoilers/speed brakes EXTEND Brakes AS REQUIRED After Exiting Runway Spoilers/speed brakes RETRACT Flaps RETRACT Strobe lights OFF Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Shutdown Checklist Boeing 737-400: Emergency Checklists


Boeing 737-400: Shutdown Checklist
	Boeing 737-400: Shutdown Checklist Flaps UP Spoilers/speed brakes RETRACTED Thrust levers IDLE Lights/strobes OFF Engine switches OFF Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Emergency Checklists Flying the Boeing 737-400: Introduction


Boeing 737-400: Emergency Checklists
	Boeing 737-400: Emergency Checklists Aborted Takeoff Thrust levers REVERSE Brakes APPLY Spoilers/speed brakes EXTEND Engine Failure After Takeoff Airspeed CLIMB @ V2 (160 KIAS) Landing gear UP Airspeed Accelerate to V2+30 (190 KIAS) Flaps RETRACT Emergency Descent Thrust levers IDLE Autopilot OFF Spoilers/speed brakes EXTEND Landing gear DOWN (< 270 KIAS) Airspeed 320 KIAS (.82 Mach) Recovery From Overspeed Thrust levers IDLE Autopilot OFF Aircraft attitude LEVEL WINGS RAISE NOSE Landing gear DOWN Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Performance Specifications Flying the Boeing 737-400: Introduction


Flying the Boeing 737-400: Introduction
	Flying the Boeing 737-400: Introduction The 737-400 is a large, heavy aircraft. Give yourself room to maneuver and plan ahead, especially when preparing to descend, reduce airspeed, and land. For example, if you reduce thrust to idle, it takes about one minute to decelerate from 280 knots to 210 knots in level flight. Following the appropriate procedures for takeoffs, climbs, cruise, and landings is very important. You’ll find checklists and basic operating procedures in this section of Help to make it easier to fly the Boeing 737-400 with precision. NOTE: The speeds used in Flight Simulator checklists, operating procedures, and in the Aircraft Handbooks are indicated airspeeds unless otherwise noted. Flight Simulator displays indicated airspeed by default for a more realistic flying experience. To display true airspeed instead, choose Preferences from the Options menu and clear the Display Indicated Airspeed option on the Instrument tab of the Preferences dialog box. TIP: You can display checklists and basic operating procedures as you fly. To see the checklists, press SHIFT+C. Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Performance Specifications Boeing 737-400: Cockpit Orientation Boeing 737-400: Setting Flaps, Power, and Trim Boeing 737-400: Takeoff


Boeing 737-400: Setting Flaps, Power, and Trim
	Boeing 737-400: Setting Flaps, Power, and Trim Before you taxi onto the runway, set flaps at five degrees. You can set the flaps by pressing the F7 key, pressing a button on many joysticks, or by clicking a flap setting on the flap position indicator. The flaps extend or retract in increments each time you press F7 or the appropriate joystick button. On the 737-400, the flap settings are: 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 25, 30, and 40 degrees. Set the elevator trim indicator about in the middle for takeoff (press KEYPAD 7 to apply nose-down trim, KEYPAD 1 to add nose-up trim). Setting Power The N1 gauge at the top of the engine instrument stack is the primary engine power indicator. It represents the RPM (in percent) of the primary engine fan. Make sure that you don’t overspeed the engines. Apply power smoothly and keep the readings on the N1 gauge in the green range. The turbofan engines on the Boeing 737-400 take some time to "spool up." If you shove the thrust levers forward, you’re likely to shoot right past the typical takeoff power setting of about 96% N1. Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Cockpit Orientation Boeing 737-400: Performance Specifications Flying the Boeing 737-400: Introduction


Boeing 737-400: Takeoff
	Boeing 737-400: Takeoffs Before you head down the runway, review the so-called "V speeds," the critical numbers for takeoff: • V1 is takeoff decision speed. If you detect any problems before you reach this speed, abort the takeoff. Once above this speed, you’re committed to taking off, because on a typical runway, there’s not enough pavement ahead to stop the airplane. At sea level on a cool day with the 737-400 at its maximum takeoff weight, V1 is about 150 knots. • Vr is rotation speed, the speed at which you smoothly raise the nose to about 10 degrees to lift off the runway. Rotate smoothly—it should take 3–5 seconds to reach the 10-degree nose-up pitch attitude. Use 151 knots for Vr in most situations. • V2 is takeoff safety speed, the minimum safe flying speed if an engine fails. Use 160 knots for V2. Hold this speed until you establish a positive rate of climb; as you retract the landing gear, the airplane will quickly accelerate to V2+15 or V2 +25 knots. Maintain this speed until the airplane is about 1,000 ft (300 m) above the ground. • Vfs is the flap retraction speed. This number is V2+ 15, or 175–190 knots. Takeoff For realism, assume you have a copilot to jog your memory. He or she will make the following calls during the takeoff roll: • “ Cross check” at 80 knots (to make sure both sets of flight instruments are in sync). • “ V1,” “Rotate,” and “V2”—about as fast as you can read this. • When you’re ready to go, confirm that the Before Takeoff checklist is complete, and then bring the power up (hold down the F3 key). The target power setting is about 95 percent on the N1 gauge. When you reach Vr, smoothly raise the nose at a rate of three degrees per second to the takeoff attitude of 10 degrees. • The airplane accelerates rapidly after liftoff. Hold the nose at about 10 degrees until you confirm a positive rate of climb. Then retract the landing gear and transition to the climb phase. Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Before Takeoff Checklist Boeing 737-400: Climbs


Boeing 737-400: Climbs
	Boeing 737-400: Climbs As you retract the flaps, set climb power (hold down the F2 key) until the N1 gauge shows 91 percent. Increase the pitch attitude to about 18 degrees. Climb at 250 knots until reaching 10,000 ft (3,000 m), then maintain 280 kts or 0.74 Mach. The changeover from indicated airspeed (IAS) to Mach number typically occurs as you climb to altitudes of 20,000 to 30,000 ft (6,000-9,000 m). Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Climb Checklist Boeing 737-400: Cruising Boeing 737-400: Descending Boeing 737-400: Approaches Boeing 737-400: Final Approach and Landing


Boeing 737-400: Cruising
	Boeing 737-400: Cruising On a typical trip, file a flight plan for FL 330 or FL 370 westbound and FL 310 or FL 350 eastbound. (That’s 33,000, 37,000, 31,000, and 35,000 feet, respectively.) Normal cruise speed is 0.74 Mach. If you’re showing indicated airspeed on the airspeed indicator, the needle will settle down at about 230 knots. Remember that your true airspeed is actually much higher in the thin, cold air. At FL 370, you can count on a true airspeed of about 430 knots (796 km/h, or 495 mph). You’ll find it’s much easier to operate the Boeing 737-400 in cruise if you use the autopilot. The autopilot can hold the altitude, speed, heading, or VOR course you specify. Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Cruise Checklist Boeing 737-400: Setting Flaps, Power, and Trim Boeing 737-400: Descending Boeing 737-400: Approaches Boeing 737-400: Final Approach and Landing


Boeing 737-400: Descending
	Boeing 737-400: Descending As in the Learjet, use the 3-to-1 rule to determine when to start a descent. Take your altitude in feet, drop all the zeros, and multiply by 3. The result is the distance in nautical miles from your destination where you start a descent at 250 knots and 1500-2000 feet per minute, with thrust set at idle. From an altitude of 35,000 ft, this formula tells you to start down about 105 nm from your destination. To descend, disengage the autopilot if you turned it on during cruise. Reduce power to idle and lower the nose slightly. Remember, the 737-400 is sensitive in pitch. Ease the nose down just a degree or two. Speed Limits As you head toward the airport, keep one eye on the airspeed indicator. Below 10,000 ft, don’t exceed 250 knots. Adjust power as necessary to keep speed under control. You can also deploy the spoilers to help you slow down (press the SLASH (/) key). Remember, however, that using the spoilers to correct for bad timing on the descent can be a sign of sloppy flying. Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Descent/ApproachChecklist Boeing 737-400: Approaches Boeing 737-400: Final Approach and Landing


Boeing 737-400: Approaches
	Boeing 737-400: Approaches At 10,000 ft, level off and decelerate to 250 knots. As you continue the descent, keep the landing gear and flaps up and set power at about 55 percent N1. Airspeed Limitations Review the 737-400’s important airspeed limitations. Vlo is the maximum landing gear operating speed—270 knots. Don’t extend the landing gear if you’re above this speed. You also need to know flap-limit speeds: • Maximum speed for 1–5 degrees of flaps is 250 knots. • Maximum speed for 10 degrees of flaps is 215 knots. • Maximum speed for 15 degrees of flaps is 205 knots. • Maximum speed for 25 degrees of flaps is 190 knots. • Maximum speed for 30 degrees of flaps is 185 knots. • Maximum speed for 40 degrees of flaps is 162 knots. Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Descent/Approach Checklist Boeing 737-400: Before Landing Checklist


Boeing 737-400: Initial Approach
	Boeing 737-400: Initial Approach As you begin the approach, but before you turn toward the runway, confirm that power is set at about 55 percent N1 and set flaps at 1 (one degree). Airspeed should stabilize at about 190 knots. When you’re ready to start the initial descent to the runway, extend the landing gear and increase flaps to 15 degrees. As you turn toward the runway (either on the base leg of the traffic pattern or when turning inbound on an ILS), set flaps to 25 degrees. Leave power at about 55 percent N1. Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Descent/Approach Checklist Boeing 737-400: Before Landing Checklist


Boeing 737-400: Final Approach and Landing
	Boeing 737-400: Final Approach and Landing The proper final approach speed varies with weight, but a good target at typical operating weight is 140 knots. With landing gear and flaps set at 30 degrees, set the power at 55–60 percent N1. This configuration should hold airspeed at about 140 knots with a good descent angle toward the runway. Hold 140 knots as you slide down the glide slope. Use small power adjustments and pitch changes to stay on the glide path. You’re looking for a descent rate of about 700 fpm. In a real 737-400, the copilot calls 50 ft above the runway, your cue to bring the thrust levers to idle. Maintain the pitch attitude you’ve been holding down the final approach. Don’t try to raise or lower the nose; just fly the airplane down to the runway. When you touch down, deploy the spoilers and add reverse thrust. Make sure you come out of reverse thrust as airspeed drops below 60 knots, and apply brakes (press the PERIOD key). TIP: If you find it difficult to see over the instrument panel as you approach the runway, press the W key to switch to full-screen view. To take a quick peek at the instruments, press W again to look back inside the cockpit. This technique is much like that used by pilots as they transition from instrument flight to visual cues during the final stages of an approach. Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Before Landing Checklist Boeing 737-400: After Landing Checklist Boeing 737-400: Shutdown Checklist


Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook
	Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook This section of Pilot's Help includes detailed information about the Cessna Skylane 182S and the Cessna Skylane 182 RG, including: • Specifications and performance data for each aircraft • Operating checklists • Basic operating procedures The Skylane is an ideal plane for pilot training. Its combination of maneuverability, power, and flying characteristics make it suitable for basic flying, instrument training, and cross-country trips. It has the performance and speed to keep a pilot busy without overwhelming inexperienced aviators, and it provides a solid foundation for moving up to more advanced aircraft. To brush up on your basic knowledge of aerodynamics, aircraft controls, instruments, engines, and systems, see the topics in the Flight School section of Pilot's Help. Checklists You can view simplified checklists and flying tips for takeoffs, landings, and other basic situations as you fly. Press SHIFT+C to display and cycle through the available checklists or click Checklists on the Aircraft menu and then select the specific checklist you want to see. NOTE: The speeds used in Flight Simulator checklists, operating procedures, and in the Aircraft Handbooks are indicated airspeeds unless otherwise noted. Flight Simulator displays indicated airspeed by default for a more realistic flying experience. To display true airspeed instead, choose Preferences from the Options menu and clear the Display Indicated Airspeed option on the Instrument tab of the Preferences dialog box. Related Topics Cessna Skylane: History Cessna Skylane 182S: Performance Specifications Cessna Skylane RG: Performance Specifications The Axes of Flight Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Piston Engine Controls The Pitot Static Instruments Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments


Cessna Skylane: History
	Cessna Skylane: History In 1956 Cessna developed the Model 172 (later dubbed the "Skyhawk") and the Model 182. The Model 182 eventually evolved into several designs, including the Skylane and a retractable landing gear (RG) version developed in the late 1970s. Cessna built more than 2,000 Skylane RGs before production ended in 1987. During 31 years of production, Cessna factories turned out nearly 30,000 Skyhawks and Skylanes, making these models among the most widely produced airplanes in history. Production of Skyhawks and Skylanes resumed in 1996–199 with the 182S. Related Topics Cessna Skylane 182S: Performance Specifications Cessna Skylane RG: Performance Specifications Cessna Skylane: Starting Checklist Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Piston Engine Controls


Cessna Skylane 182S: Performance Specifications
	Cessna Skylane 182S: Performance Specifications The Cessna Skylane S is a conventional, high-wing light aircraft powered by a reciprocating piston engine. Here is a list of basic specifications and performance. Engine Textron Lycoming IO-540-AB1A5 horizontally opposed, 230 hp Seats 4 Length 28 ft  (8.53 m) Height 9 ft 3 in. (2.82 m) Wingspan 36 ft (10.97 m) Wing area 175.5 sq ft (16.35 m2) Max ramp weight 3,110 lb (1,411 kg) Max takeoff/landing  weight 3,100 lb (1,406 kg) Standard empty weight 1,881.5 lb (853 kg) Useful load 1,360 lb (617 kg) Wing loading 17.7 lb/sq ft (86.3 kg/m2) Power loading 13.5 lb/hp Max usable fuel 92 gal (348 liters) Max rate of  climb (SL) 924 ft (282 m) /min Service ceiling 18,100 ft (5517 m) Max operating speed 160 knots (184 mph, 296 km/h) Cruise, 75% power at 8000 ft (2348 m) 140 knots (161 mph, 259 km/h) Stall speed clean 51 knots (59 mph, 94 km/h) Stall speed flaps/gear down 46 knots (53 mph, 85 km/h) Landing gear Fixed tricycle, steerable nosewheel Related Topics Cessna Skylane RG: Performance Specifications Cessna Skylane: Starting Checklist Cessna Skylane: Emergency Checklists


Cessna Skylane RG: Performance Specifications
	Cessna Skylane RG: Performance Specifications The Cessna Skylane RG is a conventional, high-wing light aircraft powered by a reciprocating piston engine. Here is a list of basic specifications and performance. Engine Avco Lycoming O-540-J3C5D horizontally opposed, 235 hp (175kW) Seats 4 Length 28 ft 7.5 in. (8.72 m) Height 8 ft 11 in. (2.72 m) Wingspan 36 ft (10.97 m) Wing area 174 sq ft (16.16 m2) Max ramp weight 3,112 lb (1,412 kg) Max takeoff/landing  weight 3,100 lb (1,406 kg) Standard empty weight 1,782 lb (808.3 kg) Useful load 1,330 lb (603.2 kg) Wing loading 17.8 lb/sq ft (89.6 kg/m2) Power loading 13.2 lb/hp (8.03 kg/kW) Max usable fuel 88 gal (333 liters, 73.3 Imp. gal) Max rate of  climb (SL) 1,140 ft (347 m) /min Max rate of climb at 8000 ft (2438 m) 455 ft (138.7m) /min Service ceiling 14,300 ft (4359 m) Max operating speed 160 knots (184 mph, 296 km/h) Cruise, 75% power at 7500 ft (2286 m) 156 knots (179 mph, 289 km/h) Stall speed clean 54 knots (62 mph, 100 km/h) Stall speed flaps/gear down 50 knots (58 mph, 93 km/h) Landing gear Retractable tricycle, steerable nosewheel Related Topics Cessna Skylane 182S: Performance Specifications Cessna Skylane: Starting Checklist Cessna Skylane: Emergency Checklists


Cessna Skylane: Starting Checklist
	Cessna Skylane: Starting Checklist Before Starting Engine Preflight inspection COMPLETE Passenger briefing COMPLETE Seats, belts, harnesses ADJUST and LOCK Brakes TEST and SET Electrical equipment OFF Landing gear lever (Skylane RG) DOWN Autopilot OFF Fuel quantity CHECKED Starting Engine Rotating beacon ON Throttle CLOSED Propeller HIGH RPM (FULL INCREASE) Mixture RICH Propeller area CLEAR Magneto switch START Related Topics Cessna Skylane: Before Takeoff Checklist Cessna Skylane: Takeoff/Climb Checklists Cessna Skylane: Cruise/Descent Checklists Cessna Skylane: Landing/Shut Down Checklists Cessna Skylane: Emergency Checklists Cessna Skylane 182S: Performance Specifications Cessna Skylane RG: Performance Specifications


Cessna Skylane: Before Takeoff Checklist
	Cessna Skylane: Before Takeoff Checklist Brakes SET Seats, belts, harnesses SECURE Doors CLOSED and LOCKED Flight controls FREE and CORRECT Flight instruments CHECKED and SET Mixture RICH Fuel quantity CHECKED Propeller FULL INCREASE (HIGH RPM) Magneto check THROTTLE 1700 RPM CHECK L-B-R-B MAX DROP 175 RPM MAX DIFF 50 RPM Carburetor heat VERIFY RPM DROP Propeller CYCLE FROM HIGH-LOW-HIGH Engine instruments /Ammeter CHECK Flaps SET (0–20) 10 recommended Throttle 800–1000 RPM Lights and strobes AS REQUIRED Elevator trim SET Radios and avionics SET Autopilot OFF Clearance VERIFY Related Topics Cessna Skylane: Takeoff/Climb Checklists Cessna Skylane: Cruise/Descent Checklists Cessna Skylane: Landing/Shut Down Checklists Cessna Skylane: Emergency Checklists Cessna Skylane 182S: Performance Specifications Cessna Skylane RG: Performance Specifications


Cessna Skylane: Takeoff/Climb Checklists
	Cessna Skylane: Takeoff/Climb Checklists Before Takeoff Brakes SET Seats, belts, harnesses SECURE Doors CLOSED and LOCKED Flight controls FREE and CORRECT Flight instruments CHECKED and SET Mixture RICH Fuel quantity CHECKED Propeller FULL INCREASE (HIGH RPM) Magneto check THROTTLE 1700 RPM CHECK L-B-R-B MAX DROP 175 RPM MAX DIFF 50 RPM Carburetor heat VERIFY RPM DROP Propeller CYCLE FROM HIGH-LOW-HIGH Engine instruments/Ammeter CHECK Flaps SET (0–20) 10 recommended Throttle 800–1000 RPM Lights and strobes AS REQUIRED Elevator trim SET Radios and avionics SET Autopilot OFF Clearance VERIFY Takeoff Throttle FULL OPEN Raise nose 55-60 KIAS Accelerate 80 KIAS After Takeoff/Climb Landing gear (Skylane RG) RETRACT Flaps UP Prop/Throttle CLIMB POWER (FULL THROTTLE/2400 RPM) Climb Speed 80 KIAS (flaps UP) initial 90–100 KIAS cruise climb Related Topics Cessna Skylane: Cruise/Descent Checklists Cessna Skylane: Landing/Shut Down Checklists Cessna Skylane: Emergency Checklists Cessna Skylane 182S: Performance Specifications Cessna Skylane RG: Performance Specifications


Cessna Skylane: Cruise/Descent Checklists
	Cessna Skylane: Cruise/Descent Checklists Cruise Power 15–23 IN Hg, 2100–2400 RPM Mixture LEAN Elevator trim ADJUST Engine instruments/Ammeter CHECK Fuel quantity CHECK Altimeter SET and CHECKED Nav/Com radios TUNED and SET Descent ATIS/Airport information CHECK Approach briefing COMPLETE Altimeter SET and CHECKED Nav/Com radios TUNED and SET Fuel quantity CHECK Power SET Related Topics Cessna Skylane: Landing/Shut Down Checklists Cessna Skylane: Emergency Checklists Cessna Skylane 182S: Performance Specifications Cessna Skylane RG: Performance Specifications


Cessna Skylane: Landing/Shut Down Checklists
	Cessna Skylane: Landing/Shut Down Checklists Before Landing Seats, belts, harnesses SECURE Fuel quantity CHECK Landing gear (Skylane RG) DOWN (below 140 KIAS) Mixture RICH Propeller HIGH RPM Carburetor heat (Skylane RG) ON Flaps AS DESIRED 0–10 < 140 KIAS 10–20 < 120 KIAS 20–FULL < 95 KIAS Airspeed 70-80 KIAS flaps UP 65–75 KIAS flaps DOWN After Landing/Engine Shutdown Flaps UP Carburetor heat COLD Brakes SET Throttle IDLE Radios OFF Mixture IDLE CUTOFF Lights and strobes OFF Magneto switch OFF Related Topics Cessna Skylane: Emergency Checklists Cessna Skylane: Taxiing Cessna Skylane 182S: Performance Specifications Cessna Skylane RG: Performance Specifications


Cessna Skylane: Emergency Checklists
	Cessna Skylane: Emergency Checklists Airspeeds for Emergency Operations Maximum glide speed 80 KIAS (flaps UP) Maneuvering speed (Va) (speed in turbulence) 112 KIAS Landing w/o  engine power 70 KIAS (flaps UP) 65 KIAS (flaps DOWN) Engine Failure During Takeoff Throttle IDLE Brakes APPLY Flaps RETRACT Mixture IDLE CUTOFF Magneto switch OFF Engine Failure After Takeoff Airspeed 70 KIAS (flaps UP) 65 KIAS (flaps DOWN) Mixture IDLE CUTOFF Flaps FULL (recommended) Magneto switch OFF Engine Failure in Flight (Restart) Airspeed 80 KIAS Carburetor heat (Skylane RG) ON Mixture RICH Magneto switch BOTH or START Emergency Landing Without Power Airspeed 70 KIAS (flaps UP) 65 KIAS (flaps DOWN) Mixture IDLE CUTOFF Magneto switch OFF Landing gear (Skylane RG) DOWN (smooth, hard surface) UP (rough or soft surface) Flaps FULL (recommended) Doors UNLATCH PRIOR TO TOUCHDOWN Related Topics Cessna Skylane: Starting Checklist Cessna Skylane: Before Takeoff Checklist Cessna Skylane: Takeoff/Climb Checklists Cessna Skylane: Cruise/Descent Checklists Cessna Skylane: Landing/Shut Down Checklists Cessna Skylane 182S: Performance Specifications Cessna Skylane RG: Performance Specifications


Cessna Skylane Instrument Panels
	Cessna Skylane Instrument Panels The Cessna Skylane RG and Cessna Skylane 182S have different instrument panels. The RG uses an older-style panel, while the 182S reflects the panel offered in new single-engine Cessnas. In both aircraft, the main flight and engine instruments and  occupy the lower half of the Flight Simulator screen. The displays and controls are arranged in the standard configuration for small, single-engine aircraft. The Bendix/King radio stack—the communications and navigation radios, DME, transponder, and ADF—appears in a pop-up window when you click Instrument Panel on the Views menu and then click Bendix/King Radio Stack. Note that the Skylane RG is equipped with only one VOR receiver and indicator. The six primary flight instruments show airspeed, attitude, altitude, rate and quality of turn, heading, and rate of climb or descent. The radios are arranged in a stack to the right of the basic flight instruments. The instrument panel also includes engine gauges and other instruments used in real aircraft, plus control position indicators specific to Flight Simulator. The engine, flaps, and landing gear controls are in the lower-right section of the instrument panel. What's This? To learn the name of an instrument or control, point to it; after a brief pause, a label appears. For a more detailed explanation, click the instrument or control with the right mouse button and choose What's This? from the menu. Related Topics Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments The Pitot Static Instruments Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Piston Engine Controls Cessna Skylane: Taxiing Cessna Skylane 182S: Performance Specifications Cessna Skylane RG: Performance Specifications


Cessna Skylane: Taxiing
	Cessna Skylane: Taxiing Taxiing the Cessna Skylane is relatively easy, because the airplane has a steerable nosewheel and is more stable on the ground than a taildragger like the Extra 300S. Keep the following points in mind as you maneuver the Cessna Skylane on the ground: • Watch your speed. A good rule of thumb is to taxi no faster than a brisk walk. A power setting of about 1,000 RPM should keep you moving at the appropriate speed. • Don't "ride the brakes." Use the brakes sparingly. To slow down or stop, reduce power, then apply brakes only as necessary to reduce speed or stop. • Stay on the taxiway centerline. Wandering left or right of the center is not only bad form, you could hit a wing tip. • If you've turned the Auto-coordination option off, you must use the rudder to turn the airplane on the ground. Moving the joystick or control yoke left and right won't help you change direction. Related Topics Cessna Skylane: Starting Checklist Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Piston Engine Controls Cessna Skylane Instrument Panel Taxiways Cessna Skylane: Takeoffs Cessna Skylane 182S: Performance Specifications Cessna Skylane RG: Performance Specifications


Cessna Skylane: Takeoffs
	Cessna Skylane: Takeoffs The Cessna Skylane will take off practically on its own—if you let it. The most important thing to remember during a takeoff in the Cessna Skylane is to use smooth, small control inputs—good advice in any aircraft. Here's some basic advice to help you take off successfully: • After you complete the pre-takeoff checklist, review the takeoff checklist. • When you're ready to take off, line up on the runway. Make note of a point in the distance that's aligned with the runway centerline (for example, a tall building). Use that point as a reference to help you stay aligned with the runway during and after takeoff. • Release the brakes and smoothly apply full power. • Make small corrections to stay on the centerline. Unless there's a strong crosswind, you won't need to do much to keep the Cessna rolling straight down the runway. • If you've turned the Auto-coordination option off, you must use the rudder to control the airplane on the ground. Moving the joystick or control yoke left and right won't help you change direction. You'll need to add right rudder to compensate for the airplane's left-turning tendency, especially when the airplane is traveling at low speed. • As the airspeed indicator approaches 60 knots, ease back on the stick slightly. The airplane will lift off and start to climb. Don't pull back too hard. A small, smooth, steady pull on the stick is all it takes. • Adjust the aircraft's pitch attitude to maintain about 80 knots. Use the trim to relieve any forward or back pressure you're holding to maintain the proper pitch attitude. • In the Skylane RG, retract the landing gear after you confirm that you're climbing and that there's no more runway ahead to land on if the engine fails. Related Topics Cessna Skylane: Before Takeoff Checklist Cessna Skylane: Takeoff/Climb Checklists Cessna Skylane: Climbs Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Piston Engine Controls Cessna Skylane Instrument Panel Cessna Skylane 182S: Performance Specifications Cessna Skylane RG: Performance Specifications


Cessna Skylane: Climbs
	Cessna Skylane: Climbs The Cessna Skylane delivers a good rate of climb—more than 1000 feet per minute at sea level under standard weather conditions. But to get the best performance out of the Cessna Skylane, you must fly the airplane smoothly and precisely. Here are a few points to keep in mind: • After takeoff, complete the climb checklist. • Adjust the aircraft's pitch attitude to maintain the best climb speed and a good view out the front window. About 10 degrees nose up works pretty well. You'll find that the Cessna Skylane climbs most efficiently at about 80 knots indicated airspeed. • If you've turned the Auto-coordination option off, you must use the rudder to maintain coordinated flight. When the airplane is traveling at low speed with a high power setting, as in a climb, you need to add right rudder to compensate for the airplane's left-turning tendency. • If airspeed gets a little fast, ease the nose up slightly. If speed starts to drop, lower the nose slightly. • To see the effect of changing pitch attitude on airspeed and rate of climb, experiment a little. Raise and lower the nose slightly and check the airspeed indicator and vertical speed indicator. You'll find that a change of just a few degrees in pitch attitude can cause big changes in airspeed and rate of climb. Related Topics Cessna Skylane: Takeoff/Climb Checklists Cessna Skylane: Cruising Flight Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Piston Engine Controls Cessna Skylane Instrument Panel Cessna Skylane 182S: Performance Specifications Cessna Skylane RG: Performance Specifications


Cessna Skylane: Cruising Flight
	Cessna Skylane: Cruising Flight Like most piston-engine aircraft, the Cessna Skylane is most efficient at a cruise altitude of 8,000–10,000 ft MSL.  To transition from climbing to cruising flight, follow this procedure, known as the "pitch, power, trim" rule: • Start to level off 50–75 ft below your intended cruising altitude. • Apply smooth, forward pressure on the stick to lower the nose so that it's about level with the horizon. You won't need much pressure, so don't overdo it. • Hold the nose level and let the airspeed increase. You'll probably need to hold forward pressure on the stick to keep the nose from pitching up. To relieve that pressure, add nose-down trim. • When the airspeed stops increasing, check the power setting. Adjust the throttle until the manifold pressure gauge reads 19–21 inches. If you've clicked the Manual option under Prop Advance on the Engines tab of the Realism and Reliability dialog box (Aircraft menu), you can also adjust the propeller control to set the tachometer to read 2,200–2,300 RPM. • After about 20 seconds, use the elevator trim to relieve any pressure you're holding on the stick. • If you've clicked Mixture Control on the Engines tab of the Realism and Reliability dialog box (Aircraft menu), adjust the mixture control to make the engine run efficiently and save fuel. Related Topics Cessna Skylane: Cruise/Descent Checklists Cessna Skylane: Descents Piston Engine Controls Using the Trim Control Straight-and-Level Flight Cessna Skylane Instrument Panel Cessna Skylane 182S: Performance Specifications Cessna Skylane RG: Performance Specifications


Cessna Skylane: Descents
	Cessna Skylane: Descents To descend, lower the nose and reduce power. Follow the "pitch, power, trim" rule again. • Apply forward pressure on the stick to lower the nose slightly—just two or three degrees below the horizon should do it. • As you establish that pitch attitude, reduce power (hold down F2) until the manifold pressure gauge shows about 18.0. • Hold the nose at the proper descent attitude and wait a few seconds. Then use trim to relieve pressure on the stick. If you're holding forward pressure to keep the nose down, press KEYPAD 1; if you're holding back pressure, press KEYPAD 7. • After a few small adjustments, you should have the airplane flying "hands off" in a gradual descent at about 700 feet per minute. • If you've turned Auto-coordination off, you'll need to add some left rudder in the descent to keep the ball in the turn coordinator centered. Related Topics Cessna Skylane: Cruise/Descent Checklists Cessna Skylane: Landings Piston Engine Controls Using the Trim Control Cessna Skylane Instrument Panel Cessna Skylane 182S: Performance Specifications Cessna Skylane RG: Performance Specifications


Cessna Skylane: Landings
	Cessna Skylane: Landings For most pilots, landing is the most challenging part of flying. The secret to a soft, smooth landing, odd as it sounds, is to try to keep the airplane from touching down. Easier said than done, but here are a few tips for bringing the Cessna Skylane softly back to earth: • Descend to about 1,000 ft above airport elevation (the altimeter will show 1,600 ft if you're flying into Chicago's Miegs Field). • Review the landing checklist, then extend the landing gear if you’re flying the Skylane. • Fly a standard traffic pattern. Following this procedure helps you establish good habits, and makes it easier to achieve smooth, consistent landings. • When you're on the downwind leg of the traffic pattern opposite your intended touchdown point, reduce the throttle until the manifold pressure gauge shows about 10.  • Hold the nose about level with the horizon. • Slowly extend 30 degrees of flaps in 10-degree increments as you fly around the traffic pattern. If you hold the nose slightly below the horizon, the airspeed should settle at about 65 knots. • Use nose-up or nose-down trim to relieve any pressure you're holding on the stick to maintain pitch attitude. • If you’re flying the Skylane RG, as you fly the final approach leg of the traffic pattern, make sure the landing gear is down and locked. • As you approach the end of the runway, smoothly reduce power to idle and smoothly raise the nose until it's slightly above the horizon. • Hold that attitude and let the airplane settle onto the runway. Don't worry if you don't get it right the first few times, just keep practicing. • After you land, taxi off the runway to the ramp and complete the shut down checklist. TIP: To get an idea of what a good landing should look like, click Land Me on the Aircraft menu. Use this command until you've had more practice flying. Related Topics Cessna Skylane: Landing/Shut Down Checklists Cessna Skylane: Taxiing The Traffic Pattern Cessna Skylane 182S: Performance Specifications Cessna Skylane RG: Performance Specifications


Sopwith Camel: Introduction
	Sopwith Camel: Introduction Sopwith Camels were among the most successful fighting machines of World War I. Reputedly responsible for destroying more than 1200 enemy aircraft between 1914–1918, the Camel was the fighter of choice for many British, Canadian, and American aces. Its name came from the distinctive hump in front of the cockpit. NOTE: The speeds used in Flight Simulator checklists, operating procedures, and in the Aircraft Handbooks are indicated airspeeds unless otherwise noted. Flight Simulator displays indicated airspeed by default for a more realistic flying experience. To display true airspeed instead, choose Preferences from the Options menu and clear the Display Indicated Airspeed option on the Instrument tab of the Preferences dialog box. Checklists You can view simplified checklists and flying tips for takeoffs, landings, and other basic situations as you fly. Press SHIFT+C to display and cycle through the available checklists or click Checklists on the Aircraft menu and then select the specific checklist you want to see. Related Topics Sopwith Camel: Performance Specifications Sopwith Camel: Cockpit Orientation Sopwith Camel: Checklists Flying the Sopwith Camel


Sopwith Camel: Performance Specifications
	Sopwith Camel: Performance Specifications Engine Clerget Seats 1 Length 18 ft 9 in (5.72 m) Height 9 ft (2.74 m) Wingspan 28 ft (8.53 m) Gross weight 1,482 lb (672 kg) Standard empty weight 950 lb (431 kg) Effective ceiling 19,000 ft (5,791 m) Max operating speed at 10,000 ft (3,048 m) 98 knots (112.7 mph, 181 km/h) Max operating speed at 15,000 ft (4,572 m) 92 knots (106 mph, 170 km/h) Stall speed 50 knots (58 mph, 93 km/h) Landing gear Taildragger Related Topics Sopwith Camel: Cockpit Orientation Sopwith Camel: Checklists Flying the Sopwith Camel


Sopwith Camel:  Cockpit Orientation
	Sopwith Camel: Cockpit Orientation The Sopwith Camel instrument panel occupies the lower half of the Flight Simulator screen. It has the bare minimum instruments to show the pilot airspeed, altitude, heading, and engine performance. What's This? To learn the name of an instrument or control, point to it; after a brief pause, a label appears. For a more detailed explanation, click the instrument or control with the right mouse button and click What's This?. Related Topics Sopwith Camel: Checklists Flying the Sopwith Camel


Sopwith Camel: Checklists
	Sopwith Camel: Checklists Before Takeoff Preflight inspection COMPLETE Cockpit CLEAN and SECURE Seats, harnesses ADJUST and LOCK Brakes TEST and SET Fuel quantity CHECK Mixture RICH Engine START and CHECK Before Landing Seats, harnesses ADJUST and LOCK Mixture RICH Related Topics Flying the Sopwith Camel Sopwith Camel: Performance Specifications Sopwith Camel: Cockpit Orientation


Flying the Sopwith Camel
	Flying the Sopwith Camel The Camel is a simple biplane. Use good basic flying technique for takeoff, cruise, and landing. Try climbing at about 60 knots with full power. During cruise, set power at about 2,000 RPM. Fly approaches at about 60 knots, with the power set at about 1,000 RPM. For a concise guide to specific operating procedures, see the topic "Sopwith Camel: Checklists" in this section of Pilot's Help. Because the maximum airspeed of the Camel is less than 100 knots, you'll have a chance to relax and practice your skills at a more leisurely pace. Related Topics Sopwith Camel: Performance Specifications Sopwith Camel: Cockpit Orientation Sopwith Camel: Checklists


Extra 300S: Introduction
	Extra 300S: Introduction The Extra 300S is a single-seat, high-performance aerobatic aircraft manufactured in Dinkslaken, Germany. It is one of several modern designs created by Walter Extra. It features a welded tube fuselage covered with composite panels and an all-composite wing. The structure can withstand G loads of ±10G, and its large ailerons deliver a roll rate exceeding 400 degrees per second. That exceptional performance makes the Extra one of the top aircraft on the airshow circuit and in major aerobatic competitions—and the choice of world-class pilots like Patty Wagstaff. NOTE: The speeds used in Flight Simulator checklists, operating procedures, and in the Aircraft Handbooks are indicated airspeeds unless otherwise noted. Flight Simulator displays indicated airspeed by default for a more realistic flying experience. To display true airspeed instead, choose Preferences from the Options menu and clear the Display Indicated Airspeed option on the Instrument tab of the Preferences dialog box. Checklists You can view simplified checklists and flying tips for takeoffs, landings, and other basic situations as you fly. Press SHIFT+C to display and cycle through the available checklists or click Checklists on the Aircraft menu and then select the specific checklist you want to see. Related Topics Extra 300S: Performance Specifications Extra 300S: Cockpit Orientation Flying the Extra 300S: Introduction


Extra 300S: Performance Specifications
	Extra 300S: Performance Specifications Engine Lycoming AEIO 540-L1B5 Passengers 1 Length 21.82 ft (6.65 m) Height 8.6 ft (2.62 m) Wingspan 24.6 ft (7.5 m) Wing area 112.38 sq ft (34.25 m2) Max usable fuel 42.3 U.S. gal (160 liters, 35.2 Imp. gal) Empty weight 1,343 lb (609 kg) Aerobatic weight 1,810 lb (820.8 kg) Max landing weight 2,095 lb (950 kg) Max allowed speed 220 knots Max cruising speed 185 knots (213 mph, 343 km/h) Max maneuver speed 158 knots (182 mph, 293 km/h) Max roll rate 400+ degrees/second Landing approach speed 90 knots (104 mph, 167 km/h) Stall speed 55 knots (63 mph, 102 km/h) Related Topics Extra 300S: Cockpit Orientation Flying the Extra 300S: Introduction


Extra 300S: Cockpit Orientation
	Extra 300S: Cockpit Orientation The Extra 300S instrument panel and radio stack occupy the lower half of the Flight Simulator screen. The displays and controls are arranged in the standard configuration for small, single-engine aircraft, but the Extra has a few additional instruments for aerobatic flight—the most important being the G-meter on the lower-left side of the panel. The six primary flight instruments show airspeed, attitude, altitude, rate and quality of turn, heading, and rate of climb or descent. The Bendix/King radio stack—the communications and navigation radios, DME, transponder, and ADF—appears in a pop-up window when you click Instrument Panel on the Views menu and then click Bendix/King Radio Stack. Note that the Extra 300S is equipped with only one VOR receiver and indicator. The instrument panel also includes engine gauges and other instruments used in real aircraft, plus control-position indicators specific to Flight Simulator. The engine controls are in the lower-left section of the instrument panel. Note that like most aerobatic aircraft, the Extra 300S does not have flaps. What's This? To learn the name of a cockpit instrument or control, point to it; after a brief pause, a label appears. For a more detailed explanation, click the instrument or control with the right mouse button and click What's This?. Related Topics Extra 300S: Performance Specifications Extra 300S: Prestart Checklist Extra 300S: Engine Start Checklist Extra 300S: Before Takeoff Checklist Extra 300S: Emergency Checklists Flying the Extra 300S: Introduction


Extra 300S: Prestart Checklist
	Extra 300S: Prestart Checklist Preflight inspection COMPLETE Cockpit CLEAN and SECURE Seat, harness ADJUST and LOCK Canopy CLOSE and LOCK Brakes TEST and SET Fuel quantity CHECK Related Topics Extra 300S: Engine Start Checklist Extra 300S: Emergency Checklists Flying the Extra 300S: Introduction


Extra 300S: Engine Start Checklist
	Extra 300S: Engine Start Checklist Lights ON Throttle CLOSE Propeller HIGH RPM (FULL INCREASE) Mixture RICH Propeller area CLEAR Magneto switch START Related Topics Extra 300S: Before Takeoff Checklist Extra 300S: Emergency Checklists Flying the Extra 300S: Introduction


Extra 300S: Before Takeoff Checklist
	Extra 300S: Before Takeoff Checklist Brakes SET Seat, harness SECURE Canopy CLOSE and LOCK Flight controls FREE and CORRECT Flight instruments CHECK and SET Mixture RICH Fuel quantity CHECK Propeller FULL INCREASE (HIGH RPM) Magneto check THROTTLE 1700 RPM CHECK L-B-R-B MAX DROP 175 RPM MAX DIFF 50 RPM Propeller CYCLE FROM HIGH-LOW-HIGH Engine instruments/Ammeter CHECK Throttle 800–1000 RPM Lights and strobes AS REQUIRED Radios and avionics SET Related Topics Extra 300S: Takeoffs Extra 300S: After Takeoff/Climb Checklist Extra 300S: Emergency Checklists Flying the Extra 300S: Introduction


Extra 300S: After Takeoff/Climb Checklist
	Extra 300S: After Takeoff/Climb Checklist Prop/Throttle CLIMB POWER (FULL THROTTLE/2700 RPM) Climb speed 80 KIAS initial 90-100 KIAS cruise climb Related Topics Extra 300S: Takeoffs Extra 300S: Climbs Extra 300S: Cruise Checklist Extra 300S: Emergency Checklists Flying the Extra 300S: Introduction


Extra 300S: Cruise Checklist
	Extra 300S: Cruise Checklist Power 15–23 IN Hg 2100–2400 RPM Mixture LEAN Engine instruments/Ammeter CHECK Fuel quantity CHECK Altimeter SET and CHECK Radios TUNE and SET Related Topics Extra 300S: Cruising Extra 300S: Descent Checklist Extra 300S: Emergency Checklists Flying the Extra 300S: Introduction


Extra 300S: Descent Checklist
	Extra 300S: Descent Checklist ATIS/Airport information CHECK Approach briefing COMPLETE Altimeter SET and CHECK Radios TUNE and SET Fuel quantity CHECK Power SET Related Topics Extra 300S: Landings Extra 300S: Before Landing Checklist Extra 300S: Emergency Checklists Flying the Extra 300S: Introduction


Extra 300S: Before Landing Checklist
	Extra 300S: Before Landing Checklist Seat and harness SECURE Fuel quantity CHECK Mixture RICH Propeller HIGH RPM Airspeed 70–90 KIAS Related Topics Extra 300S: Landings Extra 300S: After Landing/Shutdown Checklist Extra 300S: Emergency Checklists Flying the Extra 300S: Introduction


Extra 300S: After Landing/Shutdown Checklist
	Extra 300S: After Landing/Shutdown Checklist Brakes SET Throttle IDLE Radios OFF Mixture IDLE CUTOFF Lights and strobes OFF Magneto switch OFF Related Topics Extra 300S: Emergency Checklists Flying the Extra 300S: Introduction


Extra 300S: Emergency Checklists
	Extra 300S: Emergency Checklists Airspeeds for Emergency Operations Maximum glide speed 80 KIAS Maneuvering speed (Va) (speed in turbulence) 112 KIAS Landing w/o engine power 70 KIAS Engine Failure During Takeoff Throttle IDLE Brakes APPLY Mixture IDLE CUTOFF Magneto switch OFF Engine Failure After Takeoff Airspeed 70 KIAS Mixture IDLE CUTOFF Magneto switch OFF Engine Failure in Flight (Restart) Airspeed 80 KIAS Mixture RICH Magneto switch BOTH or START Emergency Landing Without Power Airspeed 70 KIAS Mixture IDLE CUTOFF Magneto switch OFF Related Topics Flying the Extra 300S: Introduction


Flying the Extra 300S: Introduction
	Flying the Extra 300S: Introduction The Extra 300S rewards small, smooth, precise control movements with crisp, accurate performance. Think of it as a sports car, not a station wagon. Remember that this airplane is a "taildragger." Because it has a tailwheel, the center of gravity is behind the main wheels. Controlling the Extra on the ground can be like driving a car on icy roads. Use small, careful, consistent movements when you're taxiing, taking off, and landing. For a concise guide to specific operating procedures, see the Extra 300S normal and emergency procedures checklists. NOTE: Because the Extra has such responsive controls, you may want to set the Image Complexity option to Normal to improve your system's performance and achieve higher display frame rates. To set this option, on the World menu, click Scenery Complexity. Related Topics Extra 300S: Prestart Checklist Extra 300S: Emergency Checklists Extra 300S: Takeoffs Extra 300S: Climbs Extra 300S: Cruising Extra 300S: Landings


Extra 300S: Takeoff
	Extra 300S: Takeoffs The Extra doesn't have complex systems—it doesn't even have flaps. Takeoffs are largely a matter of adding power, accelerating to about 70 knots, and lifting off. As you add power, hold a little forward pressure on the stick to bring the tail up quickly. Don't overdo it, however. After the tail comes up, hold the airplane in a slightly nose-high attitude, and it will leap off the runway. The Extra accelerates briskly, so be prepared. And make sure you find a reference point off in the distance to help you keep the airplane aligned during the takeoff roll. Related Topics Extra 300S: Before Takeoff Checklist Extra 300S: Emergency Checklists Extra 300S: Climbs Extra 300S: Cruising Extra 300S: Landings


Extra 300S: Climbs
	Extra 300S: Climbs After liftoff, smoothly reduce power until the manifold pressure gauge reads about 25 inches, then adjust the pitch attitude to hold a normal climb speed of about 100 knots. If you're going to fly aerobatics, climb to at least 3000 ft (1000 m). The Extra's spectacular performance makes that climb a short one, typically just a couple of minutes. Related Topics Extra 300S: After Takeoff/Climb Checklist Extra 300S: Emergency Checklists Extra 300S: Cruising Extra 300S: Landings


Extra 300S: Cruising
	Extra 300S: Cruising The Extra isn't designed for long cross-country flights, but it will move you down the road at about 150 knots at typical cruise power settings, 23 in manifold pressure. (MP) and 2300 RPM. You can fly for about two hours under most conditions and still have a safe fuel reserve. Related Topics Extra 300S: After Takeoff/Climb Checklist Extra 300S: Descent Checklist Extra 300S: Emergency Checklists Extra 300S: Landings


Extra 300S: Landing
	Extra 300S: Landings Good speed control is essential for smooth landings. Plan to fly your final approach at 90 knots, keeping some power on. If you get much slower, the Extra will start to descend rapidly. Try to land any faster and you'll float down the runway. As you enter the traffic pattern, bring the power back to about 15 inches of manifold pressure. Adjust the pitch attitude of the nose to hold airspeed at 90 knots. If you get a little low, add an inch or two of manifold pressure. If you think you're too high, reduce power by an inch or two, and adjust pitch attitude to hold 90 knots. As you cross over the end of the runway, smoothly reduce power to idle and hold the nose slightly above the horizon. Let the airplane settle gently onto the runway. Look outside using your peripheral vision to stay lined up on the runway. Related Topics Extra 300S: Before Landing Checklist Extra 300S: After Landing/Shutdown Checklist Extra 300S: Emergency Checklists


Schweizer 2-32:
	Schweizer 2-32: Introduction The Schweizer 2-32 is a basic sailplane suited to training and recreational soaring. The first prototype was built in 1962 by the Schweizer Aircraft Corporation. It went into production three years later. Modern, high-tech, composite sailplanes surpass the 2-32's performance, but this basic design is still a popular trainer. NOTE: The speeds used in Flight Simulator checklists, operating procedures, and in the Aircraft Handbooks are indicated airspeeds unless otherwise noted. Flight Simulator displays indicated airspeed by default for a more realistic flying experience. To display true airspeed instead, choose Preferences from the Options menu and clear the Display Indicated Airspeed option on the Instrument tab of the Preferences dialog box. Checklists You can view simplified checklists and flying tips for takeoffs, landings, and other basic situations as you fly. Press SHIFT+C to display and cycle through the available checklists or click Checklists on the Aircraft menu and then select the specific checklist you want to see. Related Topics Schweizer 2-32: Performance Specifications Schweizer 2-32: Cockpit Orientation Schweizer 2-32: Checklists Flying the Schweizer 2-32


Schweizer 2-32: Performance Specifications
	Schweizer 2-32: Performance Specifications Length 26 ft 9 in (8.15 m) Height 9 ft (2.74 m) Wingspan 57 ft (17.37 m) Wing area 180 sq ft (16.72 sq m) Aspect ratio 18.05 Gross weight 1,340 lb (608 kg) Standard empty weight 831 lb (377 kg) Effective ceiling 19,000 ft (5,791 m) Max useful load 490 lb (222 kg) Wing loading 7.44 lb/sq ft (34.6 kg/m2) Max operating speed 172 mph (276 km/h) Stall speed (solo) 46 mph (74 km/h) Max L/D 34 ft at 63.5 mph (10 m at 102 km/h) Min sink (solo) 2.38 ft/sec at 52 mph (.72 m/sec at 84 km/h) Landing gear Non-retractable wheel under fuselage Related Topics Schweizer 2-32: Cockpit Orientation Schweizer 2-32: Checklists Flying the Schweizer 2-32


Schweizer 2-32: Cockpit Orientation
	Schweizer 2-32: Cockpit Orientation The Schweizer instrument panel and communications radio occupy the lower half of the Flight Simulator screen, and the primary flight instruments show airspeed, altitude, and rate of climb/descent. What's This? To learn the name of an instrument or control, point to it; after a brief pause, a label appears. For a more detailed explanation, click the instrument or control with the right mouse button and click What's This?. Related Topics Schweizer 2-32: Checklists Flying the Schweizer 2-32 Schweizer 2-32: Performance Specifications


Schweizer 2-32: Checklists
	Schweizer 2-32: Checklists Before Takeoff Preflight inspection COMPLETE Cockpit CLEAN and SECURE Seats, harnesses ADJUST and LOCK Towline release CHECK Canopy CLOSE and LOCK Brakes TEST and SET Spoilers RETRACT Before Landing Seats, harnesses ADJUST and LOCK Spoilers AS REQUIRED Related Topics Flying the Schweizer 2-32 Schweizer 2-32: Performance Specifications


Flying the Schweizer 2-32
	Flying the Schweizer 2-32 The Schweizer 2-32 is a non-powered, aerobatic sailplane that offers both easy handling characteristics and good performance. For a concise guide to the specific operating procedures, see the topic "Schweizer 2-32 Checklists" in this section of Pilot's Help. Basic Flight Controls In addition to elevator, ailerons, and rudder controls, the sailplane has spoilers/dive brakes to help you control the angle of descent. During steep dives, you can extend them to keep the sailplane from exceeding its maximum safe speed. Extend or retract the dive brakes by clicking the spoilers indicator (SPL) on the sailplane instrument panel, or by pressing the SLASH (/) key. Taking Off In Flight Simulator, use the slew feature as your towline. Press the Y key to activate slewing, and then press F4 to gain altitude. When you reach 3,000–4,000 feet, press Y again to turn slewing off, and you're soaring. Soaring The sailplane has no engine, so it descends unless you fly into an area of rising air. When the air rises at a rate equal to or greater than the sailplane's rate of descent, you can maintain altitude or climb. Finding rising air is challenging, and the duration of your flights depends on your skill. Flight Simulator has three good soaring areas. You'll find ridge lift in the Munich, San Francisco, and Seattle scenery areas, where air is forced upward near mountains. You'll also find thermals—warm, rising air—near the San Francisco coast. Choose from several soaring situations designed for the sailplane from the Select Flight dialog box on the Flights menu. Ridge Soaring When wind blows into the side of the ridge, it deflects upward and creates a region of lift. If you keep the sailplane in the best areas of ridge lift and the wind blows steadily in the right direction, you can keep the sailplane aloft for hours. Flying back and forth in a figure-eight pattern is a good way to get the most lift along a ridge. As your skills increase, try to gain as much altitude as possible and then explore the area. As you fly away from the lift, keep in mind that you need to save enough altitude to return to the ridge and work your way back up in the rising air. Thermal Soaring One of the most challenging sources of rising air currents for the sailplane pilot is thermals. As the sun warms the ground, some areas generate more heat than others. For example, desert areas or brown fields generate more heat than forests and green fields. These heated areas release heat into the atmosphere and create columns of rising air. These columns—thermals—can rise for thousands of feet and produce cumulus clouds if there is sufficient moisture in the air. When in a thermal, fly at the best lift/drag speed, which is the most efficient speed. When flying between thermals or when you're trying to get back to the ridge, increase speed to spend the least amount of time descending. Related Topics Schweizer 2-32: Cockpit Orientation Schweizer 2-32: Checklists Schweizer 2-32: Performance Specifications


Aircraft Handbooks: Introduction
	Aircraft Handbooks: Introduction You need to be familiar with the operating limitations, operating procedures, performance capabilities, and systems of each aircraft you fly. In fact, FAA regulations require that the aircraft flight manual be on board the aircraft at all times. This section of Pilot's Help includes basic flight manuals for all the airplanes in Flight Simulator. You'll find specifications, checklists, and flying tips to help you get checked out in each aircraft. You'll also find information about all the airplanes in the Pilot's Handbook that came with your Flight Simulator package. Checklists You can view simplified checklists and flying tips for takeoffs, landings, and other basic situations as you fly. Press SHIFT+C to display and cycle through the available checklists or click Checklists on the Aircraft menu and then select the specific checklist you want to see. NOTE: The speeds used in Flight Simulator checklists, operating procedures, and in the Aircraft Handbooks are indicated airspeeds unless otherwise noted. Flight Simulator displays indicated airspeed by default for a more realistic flying experience. To display true airspeed instead, choose Preferences from the Options menu and clear the Display Indicated Airspeed option on the Instrument tab of the Preferences dialog box. Related Topics Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook Learjet 45: Introduction Boeing 737-400: Introduction Extra 300S: Introduction Schweizer 2-32: Introduction Sopwith Camel: Introduction Aircraft Flight Manual, Marking, and Placard Requirements (FAR 91.9)


Learjet 45: Introduction
	Learjet 45: Introduction The Learjet Model 45 is an all-metal, pressurized, low-wing, turbofan-powered monoplane. It can carry up to eight people, including the required pilot and copilot. This section of Pilot's Help includes detailed information about the Learjet 45, including: • Specifications and performance data • Operating checklists • Basic operating procedures To brush up on your basic knowledge of aerodynamics, aircraft controls, instruments, engines, and systems, see the topics in the Flight School section of Pilot's Help. NOTE: The speeds used in Flight Simulator checklists, operating procedures, and in the Aircraft Handbooks are indicated airspeeds unless otherwise noted. Flight Simulator displays indicated airspeed by default for a more realistic flying experience. To display true airspeed instead, choose Preferences from the Options menu and clear the Display Indicated Airspeed option on the Instrument tab of the Preferences dialog box. Checklists You can view simplified checklists and flying tips for takeoffs, landings, and other basic situations as you fly. Press SHIFT+C to display and cycle through the available checklists or click Checklists on the Aircraft menu and then select the specific checklist you want to see. Related Topics Learjet 45: Cockpit Orientation Learjet 45: Performance Specifications Flying the Learjet 45: Introduction


Learjet 45: History
	Learjet 45: History In the late 1950s, William P. Lear, Sr. envisioned a small private jet airplane for business travelers that would equal the performance of commercial jetliners. Impressed with a Swiss fighter known as the P-16, he set up a team of engineers in Switzerland to design what later became the Lear Jet 23 (the spelling eventually became "Learjet"), the first in a series of successful business jets. Lear moved from Switzerland to Wichita, Kansas in 1962 to build the prototype of the new business jet. It flew on October 7, 1963, just nine months after work began in Wichita. The Lear Jet 23 quickly became a best-seller around the world. It set several speed and time-to-climb records and was widely accepted as the ultimate in business jet travel. In 1973, the model 35 became the first Learjet to use the latest Garrett turbofan engine, the TFE731. The new turbofan, designed specifically for business jets, was much quieter and more fuel efficient than earlier designs. The new engine gave the Learjet 45 increased range and lowered its operating costs. Its luxurious accommodations remained, making the Learjet 45 a winning combination in the business jet class. Related Topics Learjet 45: Cockpit Orientation Learjet 45: Performance Specifications Flying the Learjet 45: Introduction


Learjet 45: Performance Specifications
	Learjet 45: Performance Specifications Engines Garrett TFE 731-20 turbofans, 3.500 lb st (15.6 kN) each Passengers Up to 9 Length 58 ft (17.7 m) Height 14.1 ft (4.3 m) Wingspan 47.75 ft (14.6 m) Wing area 311.6 sq ft (28.9 sq m) Spec. basic operating weight 12,750 lb (5,783 kg) Max. ramp weight 20,250 lb (9,185 kg) Max takeoff weight 20,000 lb (9,072 kg) Max. landing weight 19,200 lb (8,709 kg) Full-fuel payload 1,500 lb (680 kg) Wing loading at 20,000 lbs (9,072 kg) 64.2 lb/sq ft (313.9 kg/sq m) Maximum operating altitude 51,000 ft (15,545 m) Max usable fuel 6,000 lbs (2,722 kg) 882 U.S. gal (3,341 liters) High cruise speed 0.78 Mach (445 knots, 512 mph, 824 km/h) Normal cruise speed 0.77 Mach (441 knots, 508 mph, 818 km/h) Long-range cruise speed 0.76 Mach (434 knots, 500 mph, 805 km/h) Fuel consumption per hour at cruise 186 gal (704 l, 1265 lb, 574 kg) Runway required for takeoff (balanced-field length, sea level, standard conditions, max. weight) 4,470 ft (1,362.46 m) Runway required for landing (standard conditions, max. weight) 2,990 ft (911 m) Related Topics Learjet 45: Cockpit Orientation Learjet 45: Prestart Checklist Flying the Learjet 45: Introduction


Learjet 45: Cockpit Orientation
	Learjet 45: Cockpit Orientation The Learjet 45 instrument panel and radio stack occupy the lower half of the Flight Simulator screen. The displays and controls are arranged in the standard configuration for modern jet aircraft. If you know your way around the cockpit of a small piston-engine aircraft like the Cessna Skylane RG, you'll find the Learjet 45 basically familiar, with a few new instruments, displays, and controls. The Learjet 45 instrument panel in Flight Simulator includes engine gauges and other instruments used in real aircraft, plus control position indicators specific to Flight Simulator. Basic Flight Instruments The primary flight instruments directly in front of you show airspeed, attitude, altitude, rate and quality of turn, heading, and rate of climb or descent. The attitude indicator includes a "ball" that provides the same information as the inclinometer in the turn coordinator found in the Cessna Skylane RG. Electronic Navigation Instruments The horizontal situation indicator, or HSI, combines displays for the heading indicator and the VOR and ADF indicators. It is directly below the attitude indicator. The HSI shows your position relative to a VOR radial or an ILS localizer and glide slope, or an NDB. Engine Instruments The primary engine instruments occupy the center of the panel. If you want more information about a specific instrument, point to it and click the right mouse button. Radios The communications and navigation radios are arranged on a control panel to the right of the basic flight instruments and engine instruments. The control for the communications radio is on top, followed by the controls for the two navigation radios, the ADF, and transponder. Engine, Flaps, and Landing Gear The engine, flaps, and spoilers/speed brakes controls are in the lower-right section of the instrument panel. The landing gear control and indicator are on the lower-right side of the instrument panel, adjacent to the flaps indicator/controls. Autopilot The autopilot controls are located in the upper-right section of the instrument panel. What's This? To learn the name of an instrument or control, point to it; after a brief pause, a label appears. For a more detailed explanation, click the instrument or control with the right mouse button and click What's This?. Related Topics Learjet 45: Performance Specifications Flying the Learjet 45: Introduction


Learjet 45: Prestart Checklist
	Learjet 45: Prestart Checklist Preflight inspection COMPLETE Passenger briefing COMPLETE Seats, belts, shoulder harnesses ADJUST and LOCK Instrument lights AS REQUIRED Flight controls FREE and CORRECT MOVEMENT Landing gear switch DOWN Brakes TEST and SET Electrical equipment OFF Landing gear lever DOWN Autopilot OFF Fuel quantity CHECKED Related Topics Learjet 45: Engine Start Checklist Learjet 45: Taxi Checklist Learjet 45: Before Takeoff Checklist Learjet 45: Cockpit Orientation Learjet 45: Performance Specifications Flying the Learjet 45: Introduction


Learjet 45: Engine Start Checklist
	Learjet 45: Engine Start Checklist Lights ON Thrust levers CLOSED Engine area CLEAR Engine start switches START Radios ON Related Topics Learjet 45: Taxi Checklist Learjet 45: Before Takeoff Checklist Learjet 45: Cockpit Orientation Learjet 45: Performance Specifications Flying the Learjet 45: Introduction


Learjet 45: Taxi Checklist
	Learjet 45: Taxi Checklist Brakes CHECK Flight instruments CHECK and SET Speed brakes/spoilers RETRACTED/LIGHT OUT Flaps 8–20 Trim SET FOR TAKEOFF Engine instruments CHECK Radios/Transponder SET and CHECKED Clearance VERIFY Related Topics Learjet 45: Before Takeoff Checklist Learjet 45: After Takeoff Checklist Learjet 45: Climb Checklist Learjet 45: Cockpit Orientation Learjet 45: Performance Specifications Flying the Learjet 45: Introduction


Learjet 45: Before Takeoff Checklist
	Learjet 45: Before Takeoff Checklist Seats, belts, harnesses SECURE Transponder ON Pitot heat ON Lights/Strobes AS REQUIRED Related Topics Learjet 45: After Takeoff Checklist Learjet 45: Climb Checklist Learjet 45: Cruise Checklist Learjet 45: Takeoffs Learjet 45: Emergency Checklists


Learjet 45: After Takeoff Checklist
	Learjet 45: After Takeoff Checklist Landing gear RETRACT Flaps UP Thrust levers CLIMB POWER SET Speed  250 KIAS below 10,000 ft MSL Related Topics Learjet 45: Climb Checklist Learjet 45: Cruise Checklist Learjet 45: Climbs Learjet 45: Emergency Checklists


Learjet 45: Climb Checklist
	Learjet 45: Climb Checklist Altimeter SET 29.92" (1013 mb) at transition altitude (FL 180 in U.S.) Autopilot CHECKED and SET Related Topics Learjet 45: Cruise Checklist Learjet 45: Descent/Approach Checklist Learjet 45: Climbs Learjet 45: Emergency Checklists


Learjet 45: Cruise Checklist
	Learjet 45: Cruise Checklist Power SET Elevator trim ADJUST Engine instruments/Ammeter CHECK Fuel quantity CHECK Altimeter SET and CHECKED Radios TUNED and SET Autopilot CHECK and SET Lights AS REQUIRED Related Topics Learjet 45: Cruising Learjet 45: Descent/Approach Checklist Learjet 45: Before Landing Checklist Learjet 45: Emergency Checklists


Learjet 45: Descent/Approach Checklist
	Learjet 45: Descent/Approach Checklist ATIS/Airport information CHECK Approach briefing COMPLETE Altimeter SET and CHECKED (local setting below transition altitude) Nav/Com radios TUNED and SET Fuel quantity CHECK Power SET Lights AS REQUIRED Landing speed (Vref) COMPUTED (~125 KIAS @ 14,500 lb) Spoilers RETRACTED Flaps 8–20 < 185 KIAS 20–40 < 150 KIAS Related Topics Learjet 45: Before Landing Checklist Learjet 45: After Landing Checklist Learjet 45: Approaches Learjet 45: Emergency Checklists


Learjet 45: Before Landing Checklist
	Learjet 45: Before Landing Checklist Seats, belts, harnesses SECURE Autopilot OFF Landing gear DOWN (< 200 KIAS) Flaps DOWN Airspeed Vref (125 KIAS at 14,500 lb) Related Topics Learjet 45: After Landing Checklist Learjet 45: Emergency Checklists Learjet 45: Performance Specifications Learjet 45: Cockpit Orientation Learjet 45: Landings


Learjet 45: After Landing Checklist
	Learjet 45: After Landing Checklist Speed brakes/spoilers EXTEND Reverse thrust/Brakes AS REQUIRED Related Topics Learjet 45: Taxi/Shutdown Checklist Learjet 45: Cockpit Orientation Learjet 45: Performance Specifications Flying the Learjet 45: Introduction


Learjet 45: Taxi/Shutdown Checklist
	Learjet 45: Taxi/Shutdown Checklist Flaps UP Speed brakes/spoilers RETRACTED Thrust levers IDLE Lights and strobes OFF Engine switches OFF Related Topics Learjet 45: Emergency Checklists Learjet 45: Cockpit Orientation Learjet 45: Performance Specifications Flying the Learjet 45: Introduction


Learjet 45: Emergency Checklists
	Learjet 45: Emergency Checklists Aborted Takeoff Brakes APPLY Speed brakes/spoilers EXTEND Thrust levers REVERSE Engine Failure After Takeoff Airspeed CLIMB @ V2 (134 KIAS @ 16,900 lbs) Landing gear UP Airspeed Accelerate to V2+30 (164 KIAS @ 16,900 lbs) Flaps RETRACT Emergency Descent Thrust levers IDLE Autopilot OFF Speed brakes/spoilers EXTEND Landing gear DOWN (< 260 KIAS) Airspeed 260 KIAS Recovery from Overspeed Thrust levers IDLE Autopilot OFF Aircraft attitude LEVEL WINGS RAISE NOSE Landing gear DOWN Emergency Landing Without Power Airspeed Vref+60 (185 KIAS at 14,500) Landing gear DOWN Flaps DOWN Related Topics Learjet 45: Cockpit Orientation Learjet 45: Performance Specifications Flying the Learjet 45: Introduction


Flying the Learjet 45: Introduction
	Flying the Learjet 45: Introduction A quick inspection of the Learjet should give you an idea of how it flies. Its wing span is 39.5 ft (12.04 m), barely more than the Cessna's span of 36.0 ft (10.9 m). In fact, attached to the Learjet's bullet-shaped body, its stubby wings look like stabilizing fins on a dart. But then you don't need much of a wing with a total of 7000 lbs (31 kN) of thrust pushing you through the air. The Learjet may look sporty and small, but keep in mind that with a maximum takeoff weight of 18,300 lbs (8300 kg), it has nearly six times the mass of the Cessna Skylane RG, which weighs in at just 3100 lbs (1406 kg). That extra mass means that the Learjet doesn't respond as quickly to power changes as a light aircraft like the Cessna. You have to plan ahead when flying this high-performance machine. You'll find it much easier to fly the Learjet if you follow instrument flying procedures even in good weather. Make your first landings on long runways equipped with an instrument landing system (ILS). To learn more about instrument flying and the ILS, look in the Flight School section of Pilot's Help. Related Topics Learjet 45: Takeoffs Learjet 45: Climbs Learjet 45: Cruising Learjet 45: Descents Learjet 45: Approaches Learjet 45: Landings Learjet 45: Cockpit Orientation Learjet 45: Performance Specifications


Learjet 45: Takeoffs
	Learjet 45: Takeoffs Before you head down the runway, review the so-called V speeds, the critical numbers for takeoff: • V1 is takeoff decision speed. If anything bad happens before you reach this speed, abort the takeoff. Once above this speed, you're committed to taking off. On a typical runway, there's not enough pavement ahead to stop the airplane. At sea level on a cool day with the airplane at its maximum takeoff weight, V1 is about 136 knots. • Vr is rotation speed, the speed at which you raise the nose to 10 degrees to lift off the runway. Use 143 knots for Vr in most situations. • V2 is takeoff safety speed, the minimum safe flying speed if an engine quits. Use 146 knots for V2. Hold this speed until you're at least 400 ft above the ground. Remember to retract the landing gear as soon as you confirm a positive rate of climb. • Vfs is the flap retraction speed. This number is V2+ 30, or about 176 knots. Setting Flaps and Trim Set the elevator trim indicator about in the middle for takeoff (press KEYPAD 7 to apply nose-down trim, KEYPAD 1 to add nose-up trim). Before you taxi onto the runway, set flaps at either 8 degrees or 20 degrees (press F7 once or twice). Eight degrees is fine for most takeoffs; using 20 degrees shortens the takeoff roll, but reduces initial climb angle and rate. Ready, Set, Go! When you finally kick in the Learjet's liquid fuel booster rockets (turbofans), you'll go through the takeoff process faster than you can read about it. For realism, assume you have a copilot to jog your memory. He or she will make the following calls during the takeoff roll: • "Airspeed alive" at 60 knots. • "Cross check" at 80 knots (to make sure both sets of flight instruments are in sync). • "V1," "Rotate," and "V2"—about as fast as you can read this. Related Topics Learjet 45: Before Takeoff Checklist Learjet 45: After Takeoff Checklist Learjet 45: Climb Checklist Learjet 45: Cockpit Orientation Learjet 45: Performance Specifications


Learjet 45: Climbs
	Learjet 45: Climbs It may seem odd, but the first thing you do after retracting the gear and flaps is reduce power. If you don't, you'll blast through a couple of FAA speed limits. So as the flaps come up, come back on the thrust levers until fuel flow is about 1,000 lbs/hour per engine. You should see about 795 degrees on the turbine temperature gauge. Increase the pitch attitude to +15 degrees. The goal is to climb at 250 knots until reaching 0.7 Mach. Then maintain 0.7 Mach for the rest of the climb. The changeover from indicated airspeed to Mach number typically occurs as you climb to altitudes in the high 20s or low 30s. Remember to increase power gradually as you climb. Like piston engines, turbine power plants slowly lose power as the air gets thinner. Related Topics Learjet 45: Climb Checklist Learjet 45: Cockpit Orientation Learjet 45: Performance Specifications


Learjet 45: Cruising
	Learjet 45: Cruising Learjets like to fly high. On a typical trip, file a flight plan for FL340 or FL360 westbound and FL350 or FL370 eastbound. (That's 34,000, 36,000, 35,000, and 37,000 feet, respectively.) You can go as high as FL450, but struggling up to that lofty altitude isn't worth the fuel burn except for long hauls—or if the winds are especially favorable. Normal cruise speed is 0.77 Mach. If you're showing indicated airspeed on the airspeed gauge, the needle will settle down at about 230 knots. Remember that your true airspeed is actually much higher in the thin, cold air. At FL370, you can count on a speed over the ground of about 429 knots (794 km/h, or 494 mph). At these altitudes, the Learjet's turbofans will be sipping jet fuel, relatively speaking. Fuel flow is probably down to about 600 lbs per hour per engine. Use the Autopilot You'll find it's much easier to operate the Learjet 45 in cruise if you use the autopilot. The autopilot can hold the altitude, heading, or VOR course you specify. Related Topics Learjet 45: Cruise Checklist Learjet 45: Cockpit Orientation Learjet 45: Performance Specifications


Learjet 45: Descents
	Learjet 45: Descents Use the 3-to-1 rule to determine when to start a descent. Take your altitude in feet, drop all the zeros, and multiply by 3. The result is the distance in nautical miles (nm) from your destination or crossing fix from which you start a 3000-feet-per-minute descent. From an altitude of 35,000 ft, this formula tells you to start down about 105 nm out. To start down, disengage the autopilot. Reduce power (hold down F2) as you lower the nose slightly for a 3000-fpm descent. Remember, the Learjet is extremely sensitive in pitch. Ease the nose down just a degree or two. Speed Limits As you head toward the airport keep one eye on the airspeed indicator. When at or below 14,000 ft (6,350 m), hold speed below 300 knots. This isn't an FAA speed limit (maximum speed below 10,000 ft is 250 knots). It's a restriction to keep the windshield from shattering if you hit a high-flying bird. Above 14,000 ft keep the speed below 350 knots (Mach .81). Any faster, and you may encounter "aileron buzz," a rapid vibration of the ailerons that can lead to loss of control and structural failure. At 10,000 ft, level off and slow down to 250 knots. As you continue the descent, keep the landing gear and flaps up and set power at about 60 percent fan speed (N1). In this configuration, you'll descend at about 250 knots or fly level at a comfortable 200 knots. Related Topics Learjet 45: Descent/Approach Checklist Learjet 45: Cockpit Orientation Learjet 45: Performance Specifications


Learjet 45: Approaches
	Learjet 45: Approaches Now it's time to remember the Learjet's other important airspeed limitations. Vlo is the maximum landing gear operating speed—200 knots. Unless you like buying very expensive airplane parts, don't extend the landing gear if you're at or above this speed. You also need to know three flap limit speeds: • Maximum speed with 8 degrees of flaps is 200 knots. • Maximum speed for 20 degrees of flaps is 185 knots. • Maximum speed for 40 degrees of flaps is 150 knots. Initial Approach As you begin the approach, but before you turn toward the runway, bring the power back slightly and hold altitude to reduce speed. Extend 8 degrees of flaps. Let the airplane stabilize at 180 knots. During the first turn toward the runway (either on the base leg or when turning inbound on an ILS), extend 20 degrees of flaps. Final Approach When you're one dot below the glide slope approaching the final approach, fix on an ILS or approaching the normal descent point on a visual approach, lower the gear and complete the before-landing checklist. To maintain 140 knots, your final approach speed, smoothly increase power to about 75 percent N1. As you intercept the glide slope, set 40 degrees of flaps. This configuration should hold airspeed at 140 knots with a good descent angle toward the runway. Hold 140 knots as you slide down the glide slope. Use small power adjustments to stay on the glide path. Look for a descent rate of about 700 fpm. Related Topics Learjet 45: Descent/Approach Checklist Learjet 45: Before Landing Checklist Learjet 45: Cockpit Orientation Learjet 45: Performance Specifications


Learjet 45:
	Learjet 45: Landings In a real Learjet, the copilot calls 50 ft above the runway, your cue to bring the thrust levers to idle. Hold the pitch attitude you've used during final approach. Don't try to raise or lower the nose. When you touch down, deploy the spoilers and add reverse thrust. Make sure you come out of reverse thrust as airspeed drops below 60 knots, and then apply the brakes. Related Topics Learjet 45: Before Landing Checklist Learjet 45: After Landing Checklist Learjet 45: Cockpit Orientation Learjet 45: Performance Specifications


Weather Features in Flight Simulator
	Weather Features in Flight Simulator Flight Simulator includes a sophisticated weather system that can simulate a variety of weather to test your flying skills. For example, you can: • Change the time of day, date, and season • Create clouds, including thunderstorms • Change visibility • Create wind and turbulence • Change temperature and atmospheric pressure Flight Simulator can generate weather automatically and change the weather over time, or you can create weather. Basic and Advanced Weather Options If you want to select only basic weather options, clear the Use Advanced Weather Dialog option on the General tab of the Preferences dialog box (Options menu). When this option is cleared, you see the Basic Weather dialog box when you choose Weather from the World menu. To control the weather more precisely, select the Use Advanced Weather Dialog option on the General tab of the Preferences dialog box (Options menu). When this option is selected, you see the Advanced Weather dialog box when you choose Weather from the World menu. Weather Areas The weather in Flight Simulator occurs in weather areas. Unless you create local weather areas, all weather applies to the global weather area. Real-World Weather To learn about weather, including clouds, fronts, and weather hazards, see the topics in the "Aviation Weather" section of Help. Related Topics Changing the Date, Time, or Season Creating Cloud Layers Creating Wind Layers Adding a Weather Area Aviation Weather


Changing the Date, Time, or Season
	Changing the Date, Time, or Season You can set the season and time of day to create challenging flying situations or just to suit your mood. Even if it's 9:00 A.M. and there's frost on the windows, you can take off on a moonlit summer night. If you want to change the default date, time, and season so that Flight Simulator always starts with the settings you prefer, create and save a flight with those settings. Make that flight your default flight. To Change the Date, Time, or Season 1 On the World menu, click Time & Season. 2 In the Season dialog box, click Set Season or Set Exact Date, and then click a season or type an exact date. 3 In the Time dialog box, click Set Time of Day or Set Exact Time, and then click a time of day or type an exact time. 4 Click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. NOTE: Flight Simulator can also use the current date and time from your computer's internal clock. To use this time whenever you start Flight Simulator, click Preferences on the Options menu. On the General tab, under Time, click System Time, and then click OK. Related Topics Changing the Time on the Instrument Panel Setting the Date and Time with Your System Clock Creating a Flight Setting the Default Flight


Setting the Date and Time with Your System Clock
	Setting the Date and Time With Your System Clock Flight Simulator can use the current date and time from your computer's internal clock to set the season and time of day. If you want to change the default date, time, and season so that Flight Simulator always starts with the settings you prefer, create and save a flight with those settings. Make that flight your default flight. To Set the Date and Time With Your System Clock 1 On the Options menu, click Preferences. 2 On the General tab, under Time, click System Time and click OK. Related Topics Changing the Date, Time, or Season Changing the Time on the Instrument Panel Creating a Flight Setting the Default Flight


Changing the Time on the Instrument Panel
	Changing the Time on the Instrument Panel To set the time of day quickly, you can use the clock on the instrument panel. To Change the Time on the Instrument Panel 1 To increase the hours or minutes displayed, click the left side of the hours or minutes digits. Click the right side of the digits to decrease the hours or minutes displayed. 2 To reset the seconds to zero, click the seconds. TIP: Flight Simulator can also use the current date and time from your computer's internal clock. To use this time whenever you start Flight Simulator, click Preferences on the Options menu. On the General tab, under Time, click System Time, and then click OK. Related Topics Setting the Date and Time with Your System Clock Changing the Date, Time, or Season


Creating Cloud Layers
	Creating Cloud Layers You can create clouds—including thunderstorms—in Flight Simulator by adding cloud layers. You can create two cloud layers and one thunderstorm (cumulonimbus) layer in each weather area. NOTE: You create cloud layers in the Advanced Weather dialog box. To use this dialog box, make sure you select the Use Advanced Weather Dialog option on the General tab of the Preferences dialog box (Options menu). To Create a Cloud Layer 1 On the World menu, click Weather. 2 In the Advanced Weather dialog box, click the Clouds tab. 3 Click Add Layer. 4 Fill in the Cloud Base, Cloud Top, and Deviation boxes. You can also select Cloud Type, Coverage, Icing, and Turbulence options, and then click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Real-World Weather To learn about cloud types, how clouds form, and the weather associated with specific types of clouds, see "Cloud Formation," "Cloud Types," and related topics in the Aviation Weather section of Help. Related Topics Deleting a Cloud Layer Cloud Formation Cloud Types


Deleting a Cloud Layer
	Deleting a Cloud Layer You can delete cloud layers that you have created. NOTE: You delete cloud layers in the Advanced Weather dialog box. To use this dialog box, make sure you select the Use Advanced Weather Dialog option on the General tab of the Preferences dialog box (Options menu). To Delete a Cloud Layer 1 On the World menu, click Weather. 2 In the Advanced Weather dialog box, click the Clouds tab. 3 Under Cloud Layers, click the layer you want to remove and click Remove Layer. 4 Click Yes. 5 Click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topic Creating Cloud Layers


Creating Wind Layers
	Creating Wind Layers You can create wind layers to practice crosswind takeoffs and landings, test your skill flying in turbulence, or to see how wind affects cross-country navigation. You can create four wind layers, including surface layers and layers between specific altitudes. NOTE: You create wind layers in the Advanced Weather dialog box. To use this dialog box, make sure you select the Use Advanced Weather Dialog option on the General tab of the Preferences dialog box (Options menu). To Create a Wind Layer 1 On the World menu, click Weather. 2 In the Advanced Weather dialog box, click the Winds tab. 3 Click Add Layer, and then click the layer you want to add. 4 Fill in the Base, Top, Speed, and Direction boxes. You can also change the Wind Type and Turbulence settings. 5 Click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Real-World Weather To learn about wind shear, see "Wind Shear" and related topics in the Aviation Weather section of Help. Related Topics Deleting a Wind Layer Wind Shear


Deleting a Wind Layer
	Deleting a Wind Layer You can delete wind layers you have created. NOTE: You delete wind layers in the Advanced Weather dialog box. To use this dialog box, make sure you select the Use Advanced Weather Dialog option on the General tab of the Preferences dialog box (Options menu). To Delete a Wind Layer 1 On the World menu, click Weather. 2 In the Advanced Weather dialog box, click the Winds tab. 3 Under Wind Layers, click the wind layer you want to delete, click Remove Layer, click Yes, and then click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topic Creating Wind Layers


Creating Temperature Layers
	Creating Temperature Layers You can create temperature layers to see how changing the air temperature affects density altitude and aircraft performance. NOTE: You create temperature layers in the Advanced Weather dialog box. To use this dialog box, make sure you select the Use Advanced Weather Dialog option on the General tab of the Preferences dialog box (Options menu). To Create Temperature Layers 1 On the World menu, click Weather. 2 In the Advanced Weather dialog box, click the Temperature tab. 3 Click Add Layer. 4 Fill in the Altitude and Daytime Temperature options. 5 To make the temperature vary, select the Day/Night option and type a variation in the Variation Range box. 6 Click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Real-World Weather To learn about temperature and its effect on atmospheric pressure, see "Atmospheric Pressure" and related topics in the Aviation Weather section of Help. Related Topics Deleting a Temperature Layer Atmospheric Pressure Moisture and Temperature


Deleting a Temperature Layer
	Deleting a Temperature Layer You can delete temperature layers you created earlier. NOTE: You delete temperature layers in the Advanced Weather dialog box. To use this dialog box, make sure you select the Use Advanced Weather Dialog option on the General tab of the Preferences dialog box (Options menu). To Delete a Temperature Layer 1 On the World menu, click Weather. 2 In the Advanced Weather dialog box, click the Temperature tab. 3 Under Temperature Layers, select the temperature layer you want to delete, click Remove Layer, click Yes, and then click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topic Creating Temperature Layers


Changing Barometric Pressure
	Changing Barometric Pressure You can change the air pressure to see the effects of atmospheric pressure on the altimeter and to create low- and high-pressure systems. Remember, however, that if you change atmospheric pressure, you must also periodically reset the altimeter by pressing B. NOTE: You change barometric pressure in the Advanced Weather dialog box. To use this dialog box, make sure you select the Use Advanced Weather Dialog option on the General tab of the Preferences dialog box (Options menu). To Change Barometric Pressure 1 On the World menu, click Weather. 2 In the Advanced Weather dialog box, click the Pressure tab. 3 In the Pressure box, type a pressure in either inches of mercury (Hg) or millibars. 4 If you want pressure to change as you fly, select Drift, and then click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Real-World Weather To learn about atmospheric pressure and pressure systems, see the topics "Atmospheric Pressure" and "Pressure Systems" in the Aviation Weather section of Help. Related Topics Setting the Altimeter Creating Temperature Layers Atmospheric Pressure Pressure Systems


Changing Visibility
	Changing Visibility You can change the visibility to simulate fog or haze and to test your VFR and IFR flying skills. Before you try to change the visibility, make sure that you have created a cloud layer above your aircraft. NOTE: You can change visibility in either the Basic Weather or the Advanced Weather dialog box. However, you have more precise control over visibility on the Visibility tab of the Advanced Weather dialog box. To use this dialog box, make sure you select the Use Advanced Weather Dialog option on the General tab of the Preferences dialog box (Options menu). To Change Visibility 1 On the World menu, click Weather. 2 In the Basic Weather dialog box, select a Visibility option -or- If you're using the Advanced Weather dialog box, click the Visibility tab and click a visibility option. 3 Click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Real-World Weather To learn about fog, low-pressure systems, and other weather that can produce low visibility, see the topics "Fog" and "Low-Pressure Systems" in the Aviation Weather section of Help. Related Topics Creating Cloud Layers Fog Low-Pressure Systems


Adding a Weather Area
	Adding a Weather Area To create a variety of weather in Flight Simulator, add weather areas. For example, you can simulate weather associated with a cold front or a warm front by creating adjoining weather areas with different characteristics. You can create two local weather areas. Each area can contain different types of clouds, wind, temperature, and other characteristics. You can also specify the speed and direction in which a weather area moves. To Add a Weather Area 1 On the World menu, click Weather Areas. 2 Click Add Area. 3 In the Weather Area box, type a name. 4 Type settings for Beginning Lat, Beginning Long, Ending Lat, Ending Long, Width, Transition, Course, and Speed. 5 Make sure the Clouds and Winds options under Automatic Weather are not selected. If these options are turned on, you cannot change the settings in the Advanced Weather dialog box. 6 Click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Real-World Weather To learn about fronts, high- and low-pressure systems, and other phenomena that can help you create realistic weather areas, see the topics "Fronts" and "Pressure Systems" in the Aviation Weather section of Help. Related Topics Copying a Weather Area Fronts Pressure Systems Aviation Weather


Copying a Weather Area
	Copying a Weather Area You can modify and then copy existing weather areas to build a library of interesting and challenging weather. To Copy a Weather Area 1 On the World menu, click Weather Areas. 2 Click Copy Weather. 3 Click the weather area you want to copy weather from, and then click the weather area you want to copy the weather to. 4 Click the specific weather features you want to copy. Or, to copy the entire area with all its weather features, click Whole Area With All Weather Categories. 5 Click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Real-World Weather To learn about weather so you can create more realistic weather areas, see the topics in the Aviation Weather section of Help. Related Topics Adding a Weather Area Aviation Weather


	Deleting a Weather Area You can remove a weather area that you have created. To Delete a Weather Area 1 On the World menu, click Weather Areas. 2 In the Weather Areas box, click the area you want to delete. 3 Click Remove Area, click Yes, and then click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Adding a Weather Area Copying a Weather Area


Displaying and Using Checklists
	Displaying and Using Checklists Flight Simulator 98 includes two types of checklists for you to use as you fly. • Popup checklists that appear in the Flight Simulator window. These checklists contain basic operating procedures and key combinations to help you fly the aircraft during takeoff, climb, cruise, descent, and landing. • Detailed operating checklists based on the real checklists that pilots use. These checklists are in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You can print these checklists for reference as you fly. Displaying Popup Checklists You can view simplified checklists and flying tips for takeoffs, landings, and other basic situations as you fly. • Press SHIFT+C to display and cycle through the available checklists. To close the checklist, press SHIFT+C when the last checklist appears. • Click Checklists on the Aircraft menu and then select the specific checklist you want to display or hide. TIP You can customize this checklists by editing checklist items and adding checklists. For more information, see the topic “Customizing Checklists” in this section of Help. Displaying Detailed Checklists The see detailed operating checklists, look in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. Each aircraft handbook contains a series of checklists appropriate to that aircraft. 1 On the Help menu, click Contents. 2 In the Contents window, click Aircraft Handbooks. 3 Click the name of the aircraft for which you want to see checklists and then select the specific checklist you want to use. NOTE: The speeds used in Flight Simulator checklists, operating procedures, and in the Aircraft Handbooks are indicated airspeeds unless otherwise noted. Flight Simulator displays indicated airspeed by default for a more realistic flying experience. To display true airspeed instead, choose Preferences from the Options menu and clear the Display Indicated Airspeed option on the Instrument tab of the Preferences dialog box. Related Topics Customizing Popup Checklists Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook Learjet 45: Introduction Boeing 737-400: Introduction Extra 300S: Introduction Schweizer 2-32: Introduction Sopwith Camel: Introduction


Customizing Popup Checklists
	Customizing Popup Checklists You can customize popup checklists and add or remove checklists for each aircraft in Flight Simulator 98. For more information about viewing popup checklists, see the topic "Displaying and Using Checklists" in this section of Help. Make sure that you exit Flight Simulator 98 before you edit checklist files. NOTE You should customize checklists only if you’re an advanced user of Flight Simulator and know how to open, edit, and save text (ASCII) files. You should make backup copies of the original checklist files so you can restore them if you make mistakes. Finding the Popup Checklist Files The information in the popup checklists is saved in text (ASCII) files in the folders associated with each aircraft. You can find these folders in the Aircraft folder of the directory where you installed Flight Simulator. The checklist files have the extension “CFG.” You can open these CFG files with WordPad, NotePad, or any text editing program that can read and save files in ASCII or text format. For example, the popup checklists for the Extra 300S are stored in the file EXTRA300S_CHECK.CFG in the Extra300 folder of the Aircraft directory. Popup Checklist Format Each checklist file follows the same format. It includes two basic sections. • The [lists] section of the CFG file shows the names of the checklists that appear when you click Checklists on the Aircraft menu. For example, the [lists] section for the Extra 300S checklists looks like this: [lists] 0=&Takeoff, Takeoff Checklist 1=&Cruise, Cruise Checklist 2=&Descent, Descent Checklist 3=&Landing, Landing Checklist Each checklist menu item has a number; the first item is numbered 0. Each menu item must appear on a separate line. The ampersand precedes the letter that you can press to select that checklist with the keyboard. You can include up to 16 (0–15) checklist menu items. The text after the comma is the title that appears in the popup checklist window. • Each numbered section contains the individual items for a specific checklist. You must include a numbered section for each checklist specified in the [lists] section. For example the Extra checklist file includes four numbered sections (0–3). Section [0] includes the items that appear in the Takeoff Checklist: [0] 0=Check flight controls. 1=Release brakes (Period [.]) … 5=Set power at about 25 in. manifold pressure. Each checklist item must be numbered (starting with 0) and appear on a separate line. The number of items you can include is limited by the size of the popup checklist window (which is fixed) and the amount of text you include for each item. You’ll have to experiment to see what looks best for each checklist. You can create additional checklists if you need to divide the information into smaller sections. Saving the Checklist File When you finish editing a checklist file, you should save it (as an ASCII or text file) with the same name as the original checklist file. For example, you should save a customized checklist file for the Extra 300S with the name EXTRA300S_CHECK.CFG. Make sure you save the checklist file in the correct folder in the Aircraft directory of the directory where you installed Flight Simulator. Note that you can use only one checklist (CFG) file per aircraft at any time. TIP If you want to change the name of a checklist file or create additional checklists for use with a specific aircraft, you can change a setting in the AIRCRAFT.CFG file that is stored in each aircraft folder in the Aircraft directory. Open the appropriate AIRCRAFT.CFG file with a text editor. In the [fltsim.0] section, scroll down to the line that begins with “checklists=” and change the file name that follows the equal sign. For example, the correct line the AIRCRAFT.CFG file for the Extra 300S reads “checklists=Extra300S_check”; note that you should not include the CFG file name extension. You can use only one checklist file per aircraft at any time. Related Topics Displaying and Using Checklists Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook Learjet 45: Introduction Boeing 737-400: Introduction Extra 300S: Introduction Schweizer 2-32: Introduction Sopwith Camel: Introduction


Introduction to Flight Simulator Scenery
	Introduction to Flight Simulator Scenery Flight Simulator offers a world of scenery for you to fly in. You can enjoy the sights of Tokyo, Paris, New York, London, San Francisco, and other cities; test your instrument flying skills by flying instrument approaches at airports around the world; or travel cross-country using the worldwide network of VORs and NDBs that form highways in the sky. For example, you can: • Go directly to an airport or any exact location. • Adjust the complexity of scenery to see more detail or improve performance. • Display dynamic scenery (other aircraft, ground vehicles, and so forth). • Fly at "warp speed" by slewing or change the simulation rate to fly as if in a time-lapse film. • Quickly change from one scenery area to another. • Find, add, delete, or reorganize scenery files with the scenery library. Related Topics Going Directly to an Airport Going to an Exact Location Changing Your Position by Slewing Changing Scenery Complexity Displaying Dynamic Scenery Using the Scenery Library Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster


Going Directly to An Airport
	Going Directly to an Airport You can change your location instantly to any airport in the Flight Simulator database. It's best to switch airports while you're on the ground. You can find information about the airports in Flight Simulator in the Airport/Facility Directory. To Go Directly to an Airport 1 On the World menu, click Go To. 2 When the popup menu appears, click Airport. 3 In the Go To Airport dialog box, select filters to narrow the search for the airport you want. You can search by place names, by airport IDs, and search scenery files created for earlier versions of Flight Simulator. 4 Under Search Results List, click the airport you want to start from. 5 Under Runway, select the runway you want to depart from. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Going to an Exact Location Changing Your Position by Slewing Using the Airport/Facility Directory


Going to an Exact Location
	Going to an Exact Location You can quickly position your airplane at any point on the earth by entering latitude and longitude or XYZ coordinates in the Go To Location dialog box. You can find information about the airport's navigation aids (VORs and NDBs) in Flight Simulator in the Airport/Facility Directory section of Pilot's Help. To Go to an Exact Location 1 On the World menu, click Go To. 2 When the popup menu appears, click Exact Location. 3 In the Go To Exact Location dialog box, fill in the latitude and longitude of the location where you want to position the aircraft. If you want to start in the air, fill in an altitude, heading, and airspeed in the appropriate boxes. –or– If you want to start from a location that's part of saved flight, click Select Flight. If you choose a flight in the Select Flight dialog box, you will return to the Go To Exact Location dialog box where you can adjust the latitude, longitude, and tower position before you start flying. To Set the Tower Position for Tower View You can change the location of the control tower from which you see your aircraft in tower view. 1 On the World menu, click Go To. 2 When the popup menu appears, click Exact Location. 3 In the Go To Exact Location dialog box, under Tower Position, fill in the latitude and longitude of the location where you want to position the tower. To set the height of the tower, fill in a height under Altitude (MSL). Note that this height must be above sea level, not above ground level. –or– If you want to set the tower to your aircraft's current location that's part of saved flight, click Set Tower From Aircraft. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Going Directly to an Airport Changing Your Position by Slewing Using the Airport/Facility Directory


Changing Your Position by Slewing
	Changing Your Position by Slewing You can slew to change your position quickly while viewing the scenery along the way. Slewing is a good way to speed up a long cross-country flight or to reposition yourself quickly. While Flight Simulator is in slew mode, you can use a joystick, the keyboard, or the mouse to change your aircraft's position, heading, and altitude. To Change Position by Slewing • On the Aircraft menu, click Slew Control (or press Y). Your current latitude, longitude, and altitude are displayed in the upper-left corner of the view window and the word "Slew" appears in the status indicator. A check mark next to the Slew command indicates that it is active. Use the mouse, keyboard, or joystick to change your position. TIP: If your aircraft is on the ground and you slew up, you may drop like a rock when you switch back to normal flight. Once you gain airspeed, you can pull out of the dive. Basic Shortcut Keys for Slewing To Press Turn slewing on and off Y Move forward KEYPAD 8 Move backward KEYPAD 2 Move left KEYPAD 4 Move right KEYPAD 6 Freeze position KEYPAD 5 Increase altitude slowly Q Increase altitude quickly F4 Decrease altitude slowly A Decrease altitude quickly F1 Related Topics Going Directly to an Airport Going to an Exact Location Basic Keyboard Controls


Changing Scenery Complexity
	Changing Scenery Complexity You can control both the types of objects you see out the window as you fly and the level of detail that Flight Simulator displays. For example, you can choose whether to see stars, the moon, and runway approach lighting at night. You can also select different levels of detail from very sparse to very dense. You may want to experiment with different levels of scenery complexity to achieve the best overall performance on your system or to make a particular flight more realistic. To Change Scenery Complexity 1 On the World menu, click Scenery Complexity. 2 Select the options you want in the dialog box, and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Displaying Dynamic Scenery Changing Simulation Rate Using the Scenery Library


Displaying Dynamic Scenery
	Displaying Dynamic Scenery To make your flights more realistic, you can display dynamic scenery—other aircraft and ground traffic. You can control the types of dynamic objects that appear and how frequently you see air and ground traffic as you fly. You may want to experiment with different levels of dynamic scenery to achieve the best overall performance on your system or to make a particular flight more realistic. To Display Dynamic Scenery 1 On the World menu, click Dynamic Scenery. 2 Select the options you want in the dialog box, and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. To learn about how pilots should scan the sky for other aircraft, see the topic "Scanning for Other Aircraft" in the Ground School section of Pilot's Help. Related Topics Changing Scenery Areas Changing Scenery Complexity Changing Simulation Rate Scanning for Other Aircraft


Changing Simulation Rate
	Changing Simulation Rate You can vary the simulation rate in Flight Simulator to reduce the amount of time required for long cross-country trips or to slow down the action so you can get a better view of what's happening. Speeding up the simulation rate makes flying like watching a time-lapse film. Keep in mind changing the simulation rate changes the world around you. Dynamic scenery (other aircraft and ground traffic) and weather are also affected when you change simulation rate. To Change Simulation Rate • On the instrument panel: Click to the left of the numbers in the rate of simulation indicator to decrease the speed of simulation. Click to the right of the numbers to increase the speed of simulation. –or– • Click Simulation Rate on the Options menu, and then click a specific rate. The normal simulation rate for Flight Simulator is 1.0. To slow down the simulation, choose a lower rate (for example, 0.50). To speed things up, choose a higher rate (for example, 4.0). Related Topics Changing Your Position by Slewing Changing Scenery Complexity


Using the Scenery Library
	Using the Scenery Library You can use the scenery library to find, add, delete, and organize scenery files in Flight Simulator. You can also use the scenery library to add, delete, or modify the CD-ROM performance boosters that automatically load scenery from the CD-ROM as you fly between scenery areas. NOTE Setup installs the scenery you select into the proper directories and organizes that scenery into appropriate areas and layers. Before you use the scenery library, make sure that you read and understand all the topics in this section of Pilot's Help. If you accidentally delete scenery, reorganize scenery improperly, or modify CD-ROM performance boosters incorrectly, you might have to reinstall Flight Simulator to restore the proper settings. How Scenery Is Organized The scenery in Flight Simulator is organized into areas and layers. To display the proper level of detail as you fly throughout the Flight Simulator world, it's important that your scenery be organized into the correct areas and layers. Scenery Areas The scenery in Flight Simulator includes the following areas: • Global This area includes only basic ground and water textures for the Flight Simulator world. Global scenery has the lowest priority—think of it as the basic earth, sea, and sky textures of a landscape painting. You can have only one global area active at any time. • Regional Regional scenery areas include more information, such as runways and navigation aids (VORs and NDBs). Regional scenery does not contain buildings and other structures. Think of regional scenery as filling in general outlines of a landscape. • Local Local scenery includes the highest level of detail, including buildings and other objects. Local scenery completes the landscape. If you fly outside of a local area such as New York or London, you see less detail until you enter another local area. If you install new scenery, you must know whether it is global, regional, or local scenery. Most add-on scenery should be assigned to the local level because it typically includes detailed information about specific areas. Scenery Layers Each scenery area is associated with a layer, or priority. Layer 1 has the highest priority. Think of it as the top of the scenery "stack." The specific layer number assigned to an area isn't as important as that area's relative position in the stack. The global area should always have the highest layer number, which puts it at the bottom. All regional areas should have layer numbers less than the global area's layer number, and all local areas should be higher in the stack than the regions they're associated with. For example, if the Asia region is at layer 25, the Tokyo local area should have a layer number no greater than 24. Related Topics Arranging Scenery Areas Changing Scenery Areas Changing Scenery Complexity Searching for Scenery Files


Searching for Scenery Files
	Searching for Scenery Files If you don't know the file names or path names of scenery files you want to add to a scenery area, you can use the scenery library to find them. To Find Scenery Files With the Scenery Library 1 On the World menu, click Scenery Library. Flight Simulator displays a message suggesting you do not make changes to the scenery library unless you are sure of the consequences. Click Cancel to return to Flight Simulator or click OK to proceed. 2 Click Files, and then click Search. 3 Select the options you want in the dialog box, and then click Add Files or Add All Files In Path. Do not press RETURN to close this dialog box. 4 Click Close. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Arranging Scenery Areas Changing Scenery Areas Changing Scenery Complexity Using the Scenery Library


Arranging Scenery Areas
	Arranging Scenery Areas You can rearrange scenery areas by assigning them to different layers.  1 On the World menu, click Scenery Library. Flight Simulator displays a message suggesting you do not make changes to the scenery library unless you are sure of the consequences. Click Cancel to return to Flight Simulator or click OK to proceed. 2 Click Files, and then click Arrange Layers. 3 Select the options you want in the dialog box, and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Deleting Scenery Areas Changing Scenery Areas Changing Scenery Complexity Using the Scenery Library


Adding Scenery Areas
	Adding Scenery Areas If you purchase additional scenery or want to add scenery that came with your Flight Simulator package, it's best to use Setup to install the appropriate scenery areas. If you want to add scenery to Flight Simulator manually, make sure you understand how scenery areas and layers work. For more information about how scenery is organized in Flight Simulator, see the topic "Using the Scenery Library" in this section of Pilot's Help. You must also know the exact path name and file name for each scenery file you want to add. To Add a Scenery Area 1 On the World menu, click Scenery Library. Flight Simulator displays a message suggesting you do not make changes to the scenery library unless you are sure of the consequences. Click Cancel to return to Flight Simulator or click OK to proceed. 2 Click Files, and then click Add. 3 Type the name (and path, if necessary) of the scenery area file you want to add, select the options you want in the dialog box, and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Searching for Scenery Files Changing Scenery Areas Deleting Scenery Areas Using the Scenery Library


Changing Scenery Areas
	Changing Scenery Areas You can change the path, title, type, layer, and status of scenery areas. Before you change the settings for a scenery area, make sure you understand how scenery areas and layers work. For more information about how scenery is organized in Flight Simulator, see the topic "Using the Scenery Library" in this section of Pilot's Help. To Change the Settings for a Scenery Area 1 On the World menu, click Scenery Library. Flight Simulator displays a message suggesting you do not make changes to the scenery library unless you are sure of the consequences. Click Cancel to return to Flight Simulator or click OK to proceed. 2 Click Files. 3 Click the scenery area file you want to change and then click Edit. 4 Select the options you want in the dialog box, and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Adding Scenery Areas Deleting Scenery Areas Using the Scenery Library


Deleting Scenery Areas
	Deleting Scenery Areas You can delete scenery areas from your hard drive to save disk space. It's best to use Setup to remove scenery areas that you no longer want. Before you delete a scenery area manually, make sure you understand how scenery areas and layers work. For more information about how scenery is organized in Flight Simulator, see the topic "Using the Scenery Library" in this section of Pilot's Help. 1 On the World menu, click Scenery Library. Flight Simulator displays a message suggesting you do not make changes to the scenery library unless you are sure of the consequences. Click Cancel to return to Flight Simulator or click OK to proceed. 2 Click the scenery area file you want to delete, and then click Delete. 3 Flight Simulator displays the message Are you sure you want to delete the selected scenery file? 4 Click OK to delete the selected scenery area file. –or– Click Cancel if you changed your mind. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Adding Scenery Areas Changing Scenery Areas Using the Scenery Library


Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster
	Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster CD-ROM performance boosters monitor your aircraft's position and automatically load scenery from the CD-ROM drive to a cache directory on your hard drive to improve performance as you fly into different scenery areas. NOTE: Before you use the scenery library, make sure that you read and understand the topics in this section of Pilot's Help. If you delete, modify, or add CD-ROM performance boosters incorrectly, you might have to reinstall Flight Simulator to restore the proper settings. To Add, Delete, or Edit a CD-ROM Performance Booster 1 On the World menu, click Scenery Library. Flight Simulator displays a message suggesting you do not make changes to the scenery library unless you are sure of the consequences. Click Cancel to return to Flight Simulator or click OK to proceed. 2 Click Performance. 3 Select a CD-ROM performance booster file and the options you want in the dialog box, and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Changing Scenery Areas Using the Scenery Library


Looking Out the Window
	Looking Out the Window The visual effects in Flight Simulator are very realistic and can be quite dramatic. By default, Flight Simulator displays the cockpit view, with a three-dimensional window in the top half of your computer screen. Through this window you can view the runway, surrounding terrain, and the sky. The instrument panel appears in a second window in the bottom half of the screen. It shows the instruments and controls you need to fly the aircraft. You can switch to other views, including: • Virtual cockpit view, which shows you the interior of your aircraft. • Spot plane view, an outside view of your aircraft as seen from another aircraft flying formation. • Tower view, an outside view of your aircraft as seen from the control tower. • Map view, which shows the position of your aircraft on the earth's surface. Multiple Views You can open many windows simultaneously (the maximum number that's useful depends on the size of your display and the speed of your system). Each window can display any view—cockpit, virtual cockpit, spot plane, tower, or map view. You can also display multiple windows with the same view. For example, you can open two spot plane windows, one zoomed in close to your airplane, the other showing the view from farther away. Other Window Options The flexibility of the Flight Simulator window system gives you many options. For example, you can: • Adjust the size and position of any window, including the instrument panel. • Zoom in to get a close-up view or zoom out for a wide-angle view. • Change your view by panning to the left, rear, right, or straight ahead. • Switch to full screen view, hiding the instrument panel so that you get a better view of the scenery. • Change the position of the spot plane to see your airplane from ahead, behind, left, right, above, or below. Related Topics Choosing a View or Direction Making a Window Active Changing the Size of a Window Key Combinations for Views


Making a Window Active
	Making a Window Active Before you can change the settings for a window, you must first make it active. To Make a Window Active • Click anywhere in the window you want to make active. –or– • Press CTRL+TAB to cycle through the windows and select the one you want to make active. –or– • Click Views. At the bottom of the Views menu, click the name of the window you want to make active. Related Topics Maximizing a Window Changing the Size of a Window Choosing a View or Direction


Maximizing a Window
	Maximizing a Window You can make the Flight Simulator window fill the entire screen. You can also hide the instrument panel to get a better view from the cockpit. To Maximize the Flight Simulator Window • To make the Flight Simulator window fill the entire screen at the current resolution selected for Flight Simulator, press ALT+ENTER. To return the Flight Simulator window to its previous size, press ALT+ENTER again. –or– • On the Views menu, click Full Screen. To Make the Current View Fill the Entire Flight Simulator Window • To make the current view fill the entire Flight Simulator window, press the W key. If you press W while in cockpit view, the instrument panel disappears to give you a better view out the window. • To return to normal cockpit view, press the W key again. –or– • Right-click the view you want to maximize. When the pop-up window appears, click Maximize Window. To restore the view to its previous size, right-click in the Flight Simulator window and click Maximize Window again. –or– • On the Views menu, click Maximize View. To restore the view to its previous size, click Maximize Window again. Related Topics Changing the Size of a Window Choosing a View or Direction


Changing the Size of a Window
	Changing the Size of a Window You can change the size of any window to give you a better view. To Resize a Window • Drag a corner or a side of the window until it is the size you want. Related Topics Maximizing a Window Choosing a View or Direction


Moving a Window
	Moving a Window You can place the Flight Simulator window anywhere on your screen. • Drag the window to a new location. Undocking and Docking a Window You can also undock a Flight Simulator window and move it outside the Flight Simulator application window. To Undock a Flight Simulator Window 1 Click the window that contains the view you want to undock. 2 On the Views menu, click Undock View. You can now drag the window anywhere on the Windows desktop. To Dock a Flight Simulator Window 1 Click the window that contains the view you want to dock. 2 On the Views menu, click Undock View. The window moves back inside the Flight Simulator window. Related Topics Maximizing a Window Choosing a View or Direction


Choosing a View or Direction
	Choosing a View or Direction You can look in any direction from cockpit, virtual cockpit, spot plane, or tower view. To Choose a View 1 Click the window for which you want to change the view. If you want to open a new window, on the Views menu, click New View, and then click the view you want to see in that window. 2 On the Views menu, click View Mode, and then click the view you want to set for that window. To Look in a Different Direction You can change the direction of the view in any window by using a joystick, the keyboard, or the View Options dialog box. First, click the window you want to change, then • If you have a joystick such as the Microsoft SideWinder 3D Pro that has a "hat" switch, you can pan left and right by moving the hat switch in the direction that you want to look. To return quickly to the view directly ahead, press SHIFT+NUMPAD 8. • To use the keyboard to change views, hold down SHIFT and press one of the number keys on the numeric keypad to change the view. • To change views in the View Options dialog box, on the Views menu, click View Options. Select the view and direction options for each window, and then click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Auto Full Screen View If you don't want to see the instrument panel or other parts of your airplane when you look to the left, right, or rear, select the Auto Full Screen option in the View Options dialog box (Views menu). Related Topics Maximizing a Window Changing the Size of a Window Key Combinations for Views


Displaying View Titles on Windows
	Displaying View Titles on Windows A good way to immediately know which view you're looking at is to display view titles on the windows. To Display or Hide View Titles 1 On the Views menu, click View Options. 2 Select or clear the Show Titles In Windows option and then click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Maximizing a Window Changing the Size of a Window


Panning Around the Horizon
	Panning Around the Horizon Panning is a smooth and gradual way of changing your view direction. You can pan in cockpit or tower view. If you are in spot plane view, panning moves the spot plane around your aircraft. To Pan Using a Joystick If you have a joystick such as the Microsoft SideWinder 3D Pro that has a "hat" switch, you pan left and right by moving the hat switch in the direction that you want to look. 1 Click the window that is displaying the view you want to see. 2 Press the hat switch in the direction you want to look. To return quickly to the view directly ahead of you, press SHIFT+NUMPAD 8. To Pan Using the Keyboard 1 Click the window and select the view you want to see out that window. 2 Press one of the following keys: SHIFT+BACKSPACE to pan up. SHIFT+ENTER to pan down. CTRL+SHIFT+BACKSPACE to pan left. CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER to pan right. SHIFT+NUMPAD 8 to return to straight ahead level view. Changing the Pan Rate You change the pan rate by changing a setting in the Flight Simulator configuration file (FLTSIM98.CFG). The configuration file is located in the directory where you installed Flight Simulator. NOTE: You should change this file only if you’re advanced user and know how to edit plain text (ASCII files). To Change the Pan Rate 1 Exit Flight Simulator. 2 Open the configuration file (FLTSIM98.CFG) with a text editor that can read and save plain text (ASCII files). 3 Scroll down to the [CONTROLS] section and find the setting labeled “PAN_RATE=”; the default setting is 400. 4 To increase the pan rate, change the setting to a higher value. The maximum recommended value is 32767. 5 To decrease the pan rate, change the setting to a lower value. The minimum rate is 1. 6 Save the file and restart Flight Simulator. Changing View Direction Instantly If you prefer to change the direction in which you’re looking instantly, you can assign the “Look ahead,” “Look right,” “Look left,” and related actions to a joystick button or control. You can change these assignments in the Customize Controls dialog box (Options menu). For more information, see the topic “Customizing Flight Simulator Preferences” in Help. Related Topics Choosing a View or Direction Key Combinations for Views Customizing Flight Simulator Preferences


Setting the Spot Plane
	Setting the Spot Plane Use the spot plane to see an outside view of your airplane. You can position the spot plane anywhere around your airplane. To Open a Spot Plane View Window • On the Views menu, click New View, and then click Spot Plane. To Change a Current Window to Spot Plane View • Click the window you want to switch to spot plane view, click View Mode on the Options menu, and then click Spot Plane. To Set Spot Plane Position Using a Joystick If you have a joystick such as the Microsoft SideWinder 3D Pro that has a "hat" switch, you can move the spot plane by pushing the hat switch in the direction that you want it to move. 1 Click the spot plane window. 2 Press the hat switch in the direction you want the spot plane to move. To move the spot plane directly ahead of or behind your airplane, press SHIFT+NUMPAD 8. To Set Spot Plane Position Precisely To set the exact position of the spot plane, use the options in the View Options dialog box. 1 On the Views menu, click Options. 2 Click the Spot Plane button. 3 Under View Options, select the spot plane's position and altitude relative to your aircraft and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Zooming In and Out Key Combinations for Views Choosing a View or Direction


Zooming In and Out
	Zooming In and Out You can use the zoom controls to magnify or reduce any view (cockpit, tower, spot plane, or map). Zoom in close enough to see the rivets on your aircraft or zoom out to get a bird's eye view of the airport below. To Zoom In and Out 1 Click the window for which you want to adjust the zoom factor. 2 Press PLUS SIGN or MINUS SIGN to adjust the zoom factor. –or– Click the zoom indicator on the instrument panel. To decrease the zoom factor, click to the left of the digits; to increase the zoom factor, click to the right. Zoom factors in tower, cockpit, virtual cockpit and spot plane views range from 0.25 to 511. Related Topics Panning the Horizon Key Combinations for Views


Using Map View
	Using Map View You can use Map View to check your position on long flights or help you find your way back to the airport. You can zoom in and out to see more detail. To Open a Map View Window 1 Press NUMLOCK or, on the Views menu, click New View. 2 Click Map. 3 To zoom in and out, press PLUS SIGN or MINUS SIGN. To Close a Map View Window 1 Right-click the map view window that you want to close. 2 When the pop-up menu appears, click Close Window. TIP: If the map view window you want to close is already selected, press the ] (right bracket) key. Related Topics Choosing a View or Direction Key Combinations for Views Zooming In and Out


Displaying or Hiding Mini Controls
	Displaying or Hiding Mini Controls The mini controls show the position of the flight controls and your airplane's airspeed. They are particularly useful if you want to fly with a full-screen, three-dimensional view and no instrument panel. To Display or Hide Mini Controls • On the Views menu, click Instrument Panel, and when the pop-up menu appears, click Mini Controls. Related Topics Displaying or Hiding the Instrument Panel Key Combinations for Views Maximizing a Window


Displaying or Hiding the Instrument Panel
	Displaying or Hiding the Instrument Panel You can display or hide the instrument panel to get a better view from the cockpit. To Display or Hide the Instrument Panel • If you want to hide the instrument panel to get a better view from the cockpit, press the W key. • To hide the instruments and controls but keep a blank instrument panel window on the screen, turn off the instrument panel window. On the Views menu, click Instrument Panel. Auto Full Screen View If you don't want to see the instrument panel or other parts of your airplane when you look to the left, right, or rear, select the Auto Full Screen option in the View Options dialog box (Views menu). Related Topics Displaying or Hiding Mini Controls Panning Around the Horizon


Displaying Radios and Other Subpanels
	Displaying Radios and Other Subpanels To make the flight instruments easier to see, several aircraft have radio stacks, a compass, engine controls, and other cockpit controls in separate windows or subpanels. The number of available subpanels depends on the current aircraft. For example, the engine controls for the Boeing 737-400 and Learjet 45 appear in separate windows, but the engine controls for the Cessna Skylane are on the main instrument panel. You can decide which subpanels you want to see at any time. Each subpanel appears in a separate window that you can move or resize. To Display or Hide Subpanels • On the Views menu, click Instrument Panel, and when the pop-up menu appears, click the subpanel you want to display or hide. TIP: To close a subpanel window quickly, right-click the window. When the pop-up menu appears, click Close Window. Auto Full Screen View If you don't want to see the instrument panel or other parts of your airplane when you look to the left, right, or rear, select the Auto Full Screen option in the View Options dialog box (Views menu). Related Topics Displaying or Hiding Mini Controls Panning Around the Horizon


Choosing an Aircraft
	Choosing an Aircraft Flight Simulator includes eight aircraft that you can fly: • Cessna Skylane 182S • Cessna Skylane RG • Extra 300S • Boeing 737-400 • Learjet 45 • Bell 206B JetRanger III • Sopwith Camel • Schweizer 2-32 Sailplane You can find detailed information, including operating procedures and checklists, for each of these aircraft in the "Aircraft Handbooks" section of Help. TIP: You can display checklists and basic operating procedures as you fly. To see the checklists, click Checklists on the Aircraft menu. To Choose an Aircraft 1 On the Aircraft menu, click Select Aircraft. 2 Select an airplane from the list and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topic Aircraft Handbooks: Introduction


Tuning the COM Radio
	Tuning the COM Radio At many airports you use the communication radio (COM 1) to tune in the Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) for current weather and runway information. Check the Airport/Facility Directory or the aeronautical charts for ATIS frequencies along your flight path. TIP: To use the communications or navigation radios, first make sure the Radio Stack window is visible. To Display or Hide the Radio Stack On some aircraft, you can display or hide the Radio Stack window by clicking the Avionics Master switch on the instrument panel. If the aircraft doesn’t have an Avionics Master switch, use the following procedure. 1 On the Views menu, click Instrument Panel. 2 Click Radio Stack. To Tune a Communication Frequency You can use the mouse, the keyboard, or the Communications dialog box to change the digits in the COM radio display. You can tune frequencies in the range 118.000–136.975 MHz. To tune frequencies in 25-kHz increments, you must first select the 25 kHz COM Frequency Increment option on the Instrument tab of the Preferences dialog box (Options menu). • To tune the COM radio with the mouse, click the digits to the left to decrease the radio frequency or to the right to increase the radio frequency. • To tune the COM radio with the keyboard, press C to select the digits to the left of the decimal point, and then press PLUS SIGN to increase the digits, or MINUS SIGN to decrease the digits. To select the digits to the right of the decimal point, press C twice, and then press PLUS SIGN or MINUS SIGN. • To tune the COM radio in the Communications dialog box, click Communications on the Aircraft menu, type the frequency in the Com1 Frequency box, and then click OK. TIP: In many of the flights provided with Flight Simulator, you may need to tune the COM radio to receive the ATIS broadcast for the nearest airport. Check the Airport/Facility Directory for the appropriate frequency. Related Topics ATIS Communicating with Air Traffic Control Tuning the Nav Radios Using the Airport/Facility Directory


Communicating with Air Traffic Control
	Communicating With Air Traffic Control If you are taking off or landing at an airport with an operating control tower, you can request takeoff or landing clearance from the tower. Air traffic control communications appear at the top of the Flight Simulator window. If you are flying an adventure or lesson, your copilot or instructor will handle communications with air traffic control. You may also hear ATC instructions for other aircraft as you fly. To Communicate With the Control Tower 1 On the Aircraft menu, click Communications. 2 To request takeoff clearance or permission to land, click Request To Take Off or Request To Land. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Tuning the COM Radio Setting the Transponder Using the Airport/Facility Directory


Tuning the NAV Radios
	Tuning the NAV Radios Most of the aircraft in Flight Simulator are equipped with two navigation radios, NAV 1 and NAV 2. These radios receive navigation signals from VOR stations on the ground. You also use the NAV 1 radio to tune ILS frequencies. Note that the Skylane RG and Extra 300S are equipped with only one VOR receiver and indicator. After tuning a VOR, ILS, or NDB, always identify the station to confirm that you’ve selected the correct frequency and that the station is transmitting a usable signal. To do so, listen for its three-letter Morse code ID after you select the frequency. TIP: To use the communications or navigation radios, first make sure the radio stack window is visible. To Display or Hide the Radio Stack On some aircraft, you can display or hide the radio stack window by clicking the Avionics Master switch on the instrument panel. If the aircraft doesn’t have an Avionics Master switch, use the following procedure. 1 On the Views menu, click Instrument Panel. 2 Click Bendix/King Radio Stack. To Tune a NAV Frequency You can use the mouse, the keyboard, or the Navigation Radios tab of the Navigation dialog box (Aircraft menu) to change the digits in the NAV radio displays. • To tune a NAV radio with the mouse, click the digits to the left to decrease the radio frequency or to the right to increase the radio frequency. • To tune a NAV radio with the keyboard, press N+1 (for NAV 1) or N+2 (for NAV 2) to select the digits to the left of the decimal point, and then press PLUS SIGN to increase the digits, or MINUS SIGN to decrease the digits. To select the digits to the right of the decimal point, press N+1 then NN (for NAV 1) or N+2 then NN (for NAV 2) and press PLUS SIGN or MINUS SIGN. • To tune the NAV radio in the Navigation dialog box, click Navigation on the Aircraft menu, and then click the Navigation Radios tab. Type the frequencies for the NAV 1 and NAV 2 radios in the appropriate Frequency boxes, and then click OK. To Identify a VOR Station, ILS, or NDB • To hear the Morse code identifier after you tune a VOR, ILS, or NDB in the NAV 1 or NAV 2 radios or the ADF receiver, click the ID button on the appropriate radio or press CTRL+1 (NAV 1), CTRL+2 (NAV2), or CTRL+5 (ADF). To hear the Morse code identifier for the DME receivers, press CTRL+3 or CTRL+4 for DME 1 or DME 2. • To turn off the Morse code identifier, click the ID button on the appropriate radio or press CTRL+1 (NAV 1), CTRL+2 (NAV2), or CTRL+5 (ADF) again. To turn off the Morse code identifier for the DME receivers, press CTRL+3 or CTRL+4 for DME 1 or DME 2 again. TIP: To receive the appropriate signals, you must set the navigation radios to the frequency for VORs along your flight path or to an ILS frequency for a nearby airport. To find information about the VORs along your route and airports with ILS approaches, see the Airport/Facility Directory. Related Topics Communicating with Air Traffic Control Selecting a Course in the OBI VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS) Using the Airport/Facility Directory


Selecting a Course in the OBI
	Selecting a Course in the OBI To use VORs for navigation, you must select a radial or course to fly after tuning in a VOR station. Each VOR indicator or HSI has an omni-bearing indicator (OBI) that shows which radial is selected. To select the radial you want to fly, or find the radial you're currently on, change the setting in the OBI by using the omni-bearing selector (OBS). Note that the Skylane RG and Extra 300S are equipped with only one VOR receiver and indicator. To Change the OBI Setting You can use the mouse, the keyboard, or the Navigation Radios tab of the Navigation dialog box (Aircraft menu) to change the digits in the OBI displays. • To change the OBI indication with the mouse, click the digits to the left to decrease the setting or to the right to increase the setting. • To change the OBI indication with the keyboard, press V+1 (for NAV 1) or V+2 (for NAV 2) to select the digits in OBI 1 or OBI 2. Press PLUS SIGN to increase the digits, or MINUS SIGN to decrease the digits. To change the course in 10-degree increments, press SHIFT+PLUS SIGN or SHIFT+MINUS SIGN. • To change the OBI indication in the Navigation dialog box, click Navigation on the Aircraft menu, then click the Navigation Radios tab. Type the digits for the radial you want to fly in the appropriate OBS Course box, and then click OK. Related Topics Tuning the NAV Radios Setting the Transponder VOR Navigation


Setting the Transponder
	Setting the Transponder The transponder sends a coded signal to Air Traffic Control (ATC) to identify your aircraft on radar screens. When you request takeoff clearance, ATC asks you to select a four-digit code, called a "squawk" in the transponder. For VFR flight, you normally squawk code 1200. ATC assigns a specific code to you if you're on an IFR flight. The digits on the transponder display are in the range 0–7. To Change the Transponder Code You can use the mouse, the keyboard, or the Transponder/ADF tab of the Navigation dialog box (Aircraft menu) to change the digits in the transponder display. • To change the transponder display with the mouse, click the digits to the left to decrease the setting or to the right to increase the setting. • To change the transponder display with the keyboard, press T to select the first digit in the display, and then press PLUS SIGN to increase the digit, or MINUS SIGN to decrease the digit. Press T twice to select the second digit, T three times to select the third digit, and T four times to select the fourth digit. • To change the transponder display in the Navigation dialog box, click Navigation on the Aircraft menu, and then click the Transponder/ADF tab. Type the digits for the squawk you want in the Transponder Code box, and then click OK. • On the instrument panel, click the digits you want to change. The four digits adjust separately. Click each digit until the value you want is displayed. TIP: Don't inadvertently select transponder code 7500, 7600, or 7700. Code 7500 indicates that you've been hijacked. Code 7600 means your radios have failed, and code 7700 is the general emergency squawk. Related Topic Communicating with Air Traffic Control


Activating and Tuning the ADF
	Activating and Tuning the ADF The automatic direction finder (ADF) receives signals from nondirectional radio beacons (NDBs). It's useful for en-route navigation and for flying NDB approaches. The Cessna Skylane RG, Cessna Skylane 182S, Extra 300S, and Bell 206B JetRanger III have separate ADF indicators. On these aircraft, the ADF indicator is a large instrument with a yellow or white needle that points to numbers on a compass card. In the Boeing 737-400, the ADF indicator is the yellow arrow on the radio magnetic indicator (RMI). In the Learjet 45, the ADF indicator appears on the electronic HSI. when you click the Toggle ADF Needle switch at the lower right of primary electronic flight instrument display. After tuning a VOR, ILS, or NDB, always identify the station to confirm that you’ve selected the correct frequency and that the station is transmitting a usable signal. To do so, listen for its three-letter Morse code ID after you select the frequency. You can find information about the NDBs for your route in the Airport/Facility Directory in Help. TIP: To tune the ADF, first make sure the Radio Stack window is visible. To Display or Hide the Radio Stack On some aircraft, you can display or hide the Radio Stack window by clicking the Avionics Master switch on the instrument panel. If the aircraft doesn’t have an Avionics Master switch, use the following procedure. 1 On the Views menu, click Instrument Panel. 2 Click Bendix/King Radio Stack. To Tune the ADF You can use the mouse, the keyboard, or the Transponder/ADF tab of the Navigation dialog box to tune the ADF receiver. • To change the ADF frequency with the mouse, click the digits to the left to decrease the setting, or to the right to increase the setting. • To change the ADF frequency with the keyboard, press A to select the first digit in the display, and then press PLUS SIGN to increase the digit, or MINUS SIGN to decrease the digit. Press A twice to select the second digit, and A three times to select the third digit. • To change the ADF frequency in the Navigation dialog box, click Navigation on the Aircraft menu, and then click the Transponder/ADF tab. Type the digits for the ADF frequency you want in the ADF Frequency box, and then click OK. To Identify a VOR Station, ILS, or NDB • To hear the Morse code identifier after you tune a VOR, ILS, or NDB in the NAV 1 or NAV 2 radios or the ADF receiver, click the ID button on the appropriate radio or press CTRL+1 (NAV 1), CTRL+2 (NAV2), or CTRL+5 (ADF). To hear the Morse code identifier for the DME receivers, press CTRL+3 or CTRL+4 for DME 1 or DME 2. • To turn off the Morse code identifier, click the ID button on the appropriate radio or press CTRL+1 (NAV 1), CTRL+2 (NAV2), or CTRL+5 (ADF) again. To turn off the Morse code identifier for the DME receivers, press CTRL+3 or CTRL+4 for DME 1 or DME 2 again. Related Topics Communicating with Air Traffic Control Non-Directional Beacons (NDB) Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) Using the Airport/Facility Directory


Using the Autopilot
	Using the Autopilot The Cessna Skylane 182S, Cessna Skylane RG, Learjet 45, and Boeing 737-400 are equipped with an autopilot that has several functions. It can: • Hold the wings level so that the airplane does not turn. • Maintain the heading you select so that the airplane continues flying in a constant direction. • Maintain the altitude you select. • Maintain the speed you select (this autothrottle function is available only on the Learjet 45 and Boeing 737-400). • Maintain the rate of climb or descent you select (this function is available only on the Learjet 45 and Boeing 737-400). • Follow a VOR radial, track the localizer and glide slope of an ILS, or track the back course of a localizer. • Hold the aircraft in the current attitude, maintaining the pitch and bank angles you establish before you turn on the autopilot. Other Autopilot Features You can also use the autopilot control panel to move the course and heading "bugs" on aircraft equipped with an HSI. It's not necessary to activate the autopilot to change those settings. Autopilot Controls To see the autopilot controls when flying the Cessna Skylane RG or Skylane 182S, display the Bendix/King radio stack (on the Views menu, click Instrument Panel and then click Bendix/King Radio Stack). The autopilot is at the bottom of the radio stack. The autopilot controls for the Learjet 45 and Boeing 737-400 are located at the top of the instrument panel. To learn about the controls, point to the item you're interested in and click the right mouse button. When you see "What's This?" click the mouse button again. To Use the Autopilot You can activate the autopilot with the mouse, the keyboard, buttons on a joystick, or by selecting options in the Autopilot dialog box (Aircraft menu). • To activate the autopilot with the mouse, click the autopilot master switch or status indicator on the autopilot panel. You can also use the mouse to change the selected heading, course, altitude, and other settings. –or– • Press the key combinations for the autopilot functions you want to use. The complete list of key combinations is in the topic "Key Combinations for Autopilot Controls" in the “Using Flight Simulator” section of Help. –or– • On the Aircraft menu, click Autopilot. Click Autopilot Active, select the options you want in the dialog box, and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Key Combinations for Autopilot Controls Tuning the NAV Radios Selecting a Course in the OBI VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS)


Using EFIS/CFPD
	Using EFIS/CFPD The Electronic Flight Instrument Systems (EFIS) and Command Flight Path Display (CFPD) can make it easier to fly a selected VOR radial or ILS approach. These systems put a "follow me" display in the window above the instrument panel. To stay on course, just follow the display. The EFIS/CFPD can display rectangles, "telephone poles," or a "yellow brick road" for you to follow. You can lock the EFIS/CFPD to an ILS or VOR signal and select the length and density of the path that Flight Simulator displays on the window. To Activate the EFIS/CFPD Display 1 On the Aircraft menu, click Navigation. 2 Click the EFIS/CFPD tab, click EFIS Master Switch, select the options you want, and then click OK. (To turn off the EFIS/CFPD display, turn off the EFIS Master Switch.) TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Tuning the NAV Radios Selecting a Course in the OBI VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS)


Controlling the Airplane with a Mouse
	Controlling the Airplane with a Mouse You can use a mouse to operate the flight controls, tune radios and set controls on the instrument panel, choose menus and commands, and select options in dialog boxes. Mouse Pointer Mode To operate controls on the instrument panel or choose commands and options, use the mouse in pointer mode. When the mouse is in pointer mode, you see a standard mouse pointer on the screen. Control Yoke Mode To use the mouse like a joystick or control yoke, use yoke mode. When the mouse is in yoke mode, moving the mouse makes the control position indicators on the instrument panel move. NOTE: Control movements may be jumpy if you set the control sensitivities to High on the Sensitivities tab of the Customize Controls dialog box. To Switch Between Pointer and Yoke Modes • To switch between pointer and yoke modes, click the right mouse button. When the pop-up menu appears click Mouse As Yoke. • To switch back to pointer mode, click the right mouse button again. Related Topics Controlling the Airplane with a Joystick Basic Keyboard Controls Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


Adjusting Mouse Sensitivity
	Adjusting Mouse Sensitivity Flight Simulator sets mouse sensitivity in the middle of the normal operating range. You can change this setting to make the controls more or less sensitive to mouse movements. Experiment to find a setting that suits your flying style. To Adjust Mouse Sensitivity 1 On the Options menu, click Custom Controls, and then click the Sensitivities tab. 2 Under Control Device, click Mouse. 3 Under Sensitivity, drag the slider control to the setting you want and then click OK. NOTE: Control movements may be jumpy if you set the control sensitivities to High. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Controlling the Airplane with a Mouse Controlling the Airplane with a Joystick Controlling the Helicopter with a Joystick Basic Keyboard Controls Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


Basic Keyboard Controls
	Basic Keyboard Controls You can use the keyboard to move aircraft control surfaces, change engine power, operate aircraft systems, change views, and so forth. This topic lists key combinations for the basic flight and engine controls and aircraft systems. You can find information about other key combinations in the topics that follow. Re-Assigning Key Combinations You can re-assign key combinations to suit your preferences and you can assign additional actions to new key combinations. To do so, click Custom Controls on the Options menu and then click the Assignments tab. NOTE: When you see a single key name, press that key. If you see two key names joined by a plus sign, press those keys simultaneously. If you see two or more keys separated by commas, press those keys in sequence. Control Keys Ailerons (roll) Left KEYPAD 4 Center KEYPAD 5 Right KEYPAD 6 Elevator (pitch) Nose up KEYPAD 2 Nose down KEYPAD 8 Trim up KEYPAD 1 Trim down KEYPAD 7 Rudder (yaw) Left KEYPAD ZERO (0) Center KEYPAD 5 Right KEYPAD ENTER Throttle (power) in Airplanes Increase F3 or KEYPAD 9 Decrease F2 or KEYPAD 3 Cut F1 Full F4 Throttle (power turbine) in Helicopter Increase CTRL+F3 Decrease CTRL+F2 Set at ground idle CTRL+F1 Set at flight idle CTRL+F4 Flaps Extend in increments F7 Retract in increments F6 Full Up F5 Full Down F8 Spoilers/Speed Brakes Extend/retract spoilers / Arm auto-spoilers SHIFT+/ Landing Gear Landing gear up/down G Pump landing gear down (after system failure) CTRL+G Brakes Parking brakes on CTRL+PERIOD Parking brakes off PERIOD Differential (left/right) brakes F11 and F12 Apply brakes PERIOD Carburetor and Pitot Heat Turn carburetor heat on/off H Turn pitot heat on/off SHIFT+H Checklists Display, cycle through, and hide on-screen checklists SHIFT+C Land Me Land Me X Lights Instrument panel/navigation lights on/off L Landing light on/off CTRL+L Strobes on/off O Point helicopter spotlight/landing light CTRL+KEYPAD 8,4,5,6,2 Radios To tune the radios, press the following keys to select the appropriate radio, then press PLUS SIGN (+) or MINUS SIGN (-) to change the digits on the display. ADF A one, two, or three times COM C or CC (Fractional) DME F+1 or F+2—Toggle DME 1 or DME 2 PLUS SIGN (+)—Toggle distance from station/speed NAV N+1 or N+2, NN (Fractional) Transponder T one, two, three or four times VOR/ OBI V+1 or V+2 Morse Code Identifiers Toggle VOR 1 ident on/off CTRL+1 Toggle VOR 2 ident on/off CTRL+2 Toggle DME 1 ident on/off CTRL+3 Toggle DME 2 ident on/off CTRL+4 Toggle ADF ident on/off CTRL+5 Sound Sound on/off Q Pause Pause on/off P Flight Save current flight ; (semicolon) Reset current flight CTRL+; (semicolon) Exit Exit Flight Simulator CTRL+C or CTRL+BREAK Related Topics Key Combinations for Flight Controls Key Combinations for Engine Controls Key Combinations for Instruments and Instrument Panels Key Combinations for Setting Radios Key Combinations for Autopilot Controls Key Combinations for Windows Key Combinations for Views Key Combinations for Slewing Miscellaneous Key Combinations Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts


Key Combinations for Flight Controls
	Key Combinations for Flight Controls You can operate the primary airplane flight controls by using the following key combinations. Re-Assigning Key Combinations You can re-assign key combinations to suit your preferences and you can assign additional actions to new key combinations. To do so, click Custom Controls on the Options menu and then click the Assignments tab. NOTE: When you see a single key name, press that key. If you see two key names joined by a plus sign, press those keys simultaneously. If you see two or more keys separated by commas, press those keys in sequence. Control Keys Ailerons Left KEYPAD 4 Center KEYPAD 5 Right KEYPAD 6 Elevator (pitch) Nose up KEYPAD 2 Nose down KEYPAD 8 Trim up KEYPAD 1 Trim down KEYPAD 7 Rudder (yaw) Left KEYPAD ZERO (0) Center KEYPAD 5 Right KEYPAD ENTER Flaps Extend in increments F7 Retract in increments F6 Full Up F5 Full Down F8 Mouse Control Toggle mouse-as-yoke CTRL+DEL Joystick Control Toggle joystick control on/off K Related Topics Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Basic Keyboard Controls Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts


Key Combinations for Engine Controls
	Key Combinations for Engine Controls You can operate the engine controls by using the following key combinations. Re-Assigning Key Combinations You can re-assign key combinations to suit your preferences and you can assign additional actions to new key combinations. To do so, click Custom Controls on the Options menu and then click the Assignments tab. NOTE: When you see a single key name, press that key. If you see two key names joined by a plus sign, press those keys simultaneously. If you see two or more keys separated by commas, press those keys in sequence. Control Keys Throttle/Thrust Levers in Airplanes Increase F3 or KEYPAD 9 Decrease F2 or KEYPAD 3 Cut F1 Full F4 Collective (torque) in Helicopter Increase F3 Decrease F2 Set full down F1 Set full up F4 Throttle (power turbine) in Helicopter Increase CTRL+F3 Decrease CTRL+F2 Set at ground idle CTRL+F1 Set at flight idle CTRL+F4 Propeller Control Increase RPM CTRL+F3 Decrease RPM CTRL+F2 Minimum RPM CTRL+F1 Maximum RPM F4 Carburetor Heat Carb heat on/off H Mixture Control Enrich CTRL+SHIFT+F3 Lean CTRL+SHIFT+F2 Idle cutoff CTRL+SHIFT+F1 Full rich CTRL+SHIFT+F4 EGT Bug Select EGT U Move needle forward U+PLUS SIGN Move needle back U+MINUS SIGN Starter/Magnetos Magnetos on/off M, PLUS SIGN (+) or MINUS SIGN (-) Jet fuel flow start CTRL+SHIFT+F4 Jet engine start J, PLUS SIGN (+) or MINUS SIGN () Jet engine shut down CTRL+SHIFT+F1 Multiengine Controls Select engine E Related Topics Piston Engine Controls Turbine Engine Controls Basic Keyboard Controls Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts


Key Combinations for Instruments and Instrument Panels
	Key Combinations for Instruments and Instrument Panels You can calibrate the altimeter and set the heading indicator with the keyboard. Re-Assigning Key Combinations You can re-assign key combinations to suit your preferences and you can assign additional actions to new key combinations. To do so, click Custom Controls on the Options menu and then click the Assignments tab. NOTE: When you see a single key name, press that key. If you see two key names joined by a plus sign, press those keys simultaneously. If you see two or more keys separated by commas, press those keys in sequence. To Calibrate Instruments Press Altimeter B Heading indicator D To Display/Hide the Instrument Panel Display/Hide instrument panel, radio stack, and mini-controls W or SHIFT+[ To Make Instrument Panel Windows Active Activate instrument panel windows 1-9 SHIFT+1 through SHIFT+9 Related Topics Altimeter Heading Indicator VOR Navigation Non-Directional Beacons (NDB) Basic Keyboard Controls Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts


Key Combinations for Setting Radios
	Key Combinations for Setting Radios You can tune the COM and NAV radios and select VOR courses with the keyboard. Re-Assigning Key Combinations You can re-assign key combinations to suit your preferences and you can assign additional actions to new key combinations. To do so, click Custom Controls on the Options menu and then click the Assignments tab. NOTE: When you see a single key name, press that key. If you see two key names joined by a plus sign, press those keys simultaneously. If you see two or more keys separated by commas, press those keys in sequence. Radio Keys To tune the radios, press the following keys to select the appropriate radio or indicator, then press PLUS SIGN (+) or MINUS SIGN () to change the digits on the display. ADF A one, two or three times COM C or CC (Fractional) DME F+1 or F+2—Toggle DME 1 or DME 2 PLUS SIGN (+)—Toggle distance from station/speed NAV N+1 or N+2,NN (Fractional) Transponder T one, two, three or four times VOR/OBI V+1 or V+2 Related Topics Tuning the COM Radio Tuning the NAV Radios Selecting a Course in the OBI Setting the Transponder Activating and Tuning the ADF Basic Keyboard Controls Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts


Key Combinations for Autopilot Controls
	Key Combinations for Autopilot Controls You can control the automatic pilot functions with the keyboard. Re-Assigning Key Combinations You can re-assign key combinations to suit your preferences and you can assign additional actions to new key combinations. To do so, click Custom Controls on the Options menu and then click the Assignments tab. NOTE: When you see a single key name, press that key. If you see two key names joined by a plus sign, press those keys simultaneously. If you see two or more keys separated by commas, press those keys in sequence. Function Key Autopilot on/off Z Wing leveler (LVL) CTRL+V Altitude hold CTRL+Z Heading hold CTRL+H Attitude hold CTRL+T NAV1 hold CTRL+N ILS lock (APP) CTRL+A Localizer lock CTRL+O Back course lock CTRL+B Yaw damper on/off CTRL+D Airspeed hold CTRL+R Arm autothrottle SHIFT+R Set takeoff power/go-around CTRL+SHIFT+R Related Topics Using the Autopilot Instrument Landing System (ILS) VOR Navigation Basic Keyboard Controls Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts


Key Combinations for Controlling Windows
	Key Combinations for Windows You can open new windows, switch windows, change the zoom factor (magnification), or maximize any window with the following keys. Re-Assigning Key Combinations You can re-assign key combinations to suit your preferences and you can assign additional actions to new key combinations. To do so, click Custom Controls on the Options menu and then click the Assignments tab. NOTE: When you see a single key name, press that key. If you see two key names joined by a plus sign, press those keys simultaneously. If you see two or more keys separated by commas, press those keys in sequence. Opening and Closing Windows Open a new window [ Open a map window NUMLOCK Close the active window ] Switching Between Views and Windows Switch to next view CTRL+TAB Switch to previous view CTRL+SHIFT+TAB Cycle through view modes S Switch from map view to other views CTRL+S Bring window to front ' (apostrophe) Toggle instrument panel on/off SHIFT+[ To zoom Press In PLUS SIGN Out MINUS SIGN In (fine) SHIFT+PLUS SIGN Out (fine) SHIFT+ MINUS SIGN 1X (normal) BACKSPACE Maximize active window W Other Display coordinates/frame rate SHIFT+Z Related Topics Looking Out the Window Choosing a View or Direction Basic Keyboard Controls Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts


Key Combinations for Views
	Key Combinations for Views  You can look in nine directions from cockpit and spot views. Re-Assigning Key Combinations You can re-assign key combinations to suit your preferences and you can assign additional actions to new key combinations. To do so, click Custom Controls on the Options menu and then click the Assignments tab. NOTE: When you see a single key name, press that key. If you see two key names joined by a plus sign, press those keys simultaneously. If you see two or more keys separated by commas, press those keys in sequence. View direction Keys Front SHIFT+KEYPAD 8 Rear SHIFT+KEYPAD 2 Left SHIFT+KEYPAD 4 Right SHIFT+KEYPAD 6 Left front SHIFT+KEYPAD 7 Right front SHIFT+KEYPAD 9 Left rear SHIFT+KEYPAD 1 Right rear SHIFT+KEYPAD 3 Down SHIFT+KEYPAD 5 Pan up SHIFT+BACKSPACE Pan down SHIFT+ENTER Pan right CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER Pan left CTRL+SHIFT+BACKSPACE Straight and level (no pan) SCROLL LOCK To cycle through cockpit, virtual cockpit, tower, and spot views S or SHIFT+S Related Topics Choosing a View or Direction Looking Out the Window Basic Keyboard Controls Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts


Key Combinations for Slewing
	Key Combinations for Slewing  You can use the keyboard to change position or location quickly by slewing. Slew mode must be active (press Y) before these keys and key combinations will work. Re-Assigning Key Combinations You can re-assign key combinations to suit your preferences and you can assign additional actions to new key combinations. To do so, click Custom Controls on the Options menu and then click the Assignments tab. NOTE: When you see a single key name, press that key. If you see two key names joined by a plus sign, press those keys simultaneously. If you see two or more keys separated by commas, press those keys in sequence. Controls Keys Turn slewing on/off Y Set aircraft position to North Heading, level pitch, level bank SPACEBAR Turn latitude/longitude display on/off Z Coordinates on/off SHIFT+Z Movement Forward KEYPAD 8 Backward KEYPAD 2 Left KEYPAD 4 Right KEYPAD 6 Freeze KEYPAD 5 Altitude Increase slowly Q Increase quickly F4 Decrease slowly A Decrease quickly F1 Freeze F2 or F3 Heading Left KEYPAD 1 Right KEYPAD 3 Freeze KEYPAD 5 Pitch Nose up 9 Nose up fast F5 Freeze F6 or F7 Nose down fast F8 Nose down ZERO (0) Bank Left KEYPAD 7 Right KEYPAD 9 Freeze KEYPAD 5 Related Topics Changing Your Position by Slewing Basic Keyboard Controls Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts


Miscellaneous Key Combinations
	Miscellaneous Key Combinations Use the following keys and key combinations to control a variety of functions. Re-Assigning Key Combinations You can re-assign key combinations to suit your preferences and you can assign additional actions to new key combinations. To do so, click Custom Controls on the Options menu and then click the Assignments tab. NOTE: When you see a single key name, press that key. If you see two key names joined by a plus sign, press those keys simultaneously. If you see two or more keys separated by commas, press those keys in sequence. Control Keys Flight Videos Stop recording a video BACKSLASH (\) Record at a 1-second interval 6 Record at a 5-second interval 7 Insert message during playback COMMA (,) Stop playback ESC Instant Replay Stop instant replay ESC Maneuver Analysis Stop maneuver analysis BACKSLASH (\) Airshow Smoke Smoke/spray on/off I Related Topic Basic Keyboard Controls Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts


Adjusting Keyboard Sensitivity
	Adjusting Keyboard Sensitivity Flight Simulator sets keyboard sensitivity in the middle of the normal operating range. You can change this setting to make the controls more or less sensitive to key presses and to make the null zone wider or narrower. The null zone keeps the controls from moving if you inadvertently press the keys. Too wide a null zone makes the controls feel sloppy; a narrow zone can make the airplane seem twitchy. Experiment to find a setting that suits your flying style. To Adjust Keyboard Sensitivity 1 On the Options menu, click Custom Controls and then click the Sensitivities tab. 2 Under Control Device, click Keyboard. 3 Under Axis, Null Zone, and Sensitivity, select options to customize how the controls react to key presses. To reset all sensitivity options to their default values, click Reset Defaults. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts Basic Keyboard Controls Controlling the Airplane with a Joystick Controlling the Helicopter with a Joystick Controlling the Airplane with a Mouse Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


Using Joysticks
	Using Joysticks Using a joystick or flight yoke makes flying the aircraft in Flight Simulator much easier and more realistic. You can use any joystick recognized by Windows with Flight Simulator. You must install the appropriate Windows drivers to use a joystick with Flight Simulator. Windows includes drivers for many popular joysticks, but many joystick manufacturers maintain Web sites or bulletin boards where you can download updated or new drivers for their products. In general, if you have trouble using a joystick with Flight Simulator, check the Control Panel in Windows to make sure that the joystick is properly installed and configured for use with Windows. Then make sure that Flight Simulator is set to use a joystick. To Enable a Joystick in Flight Simulator 1 On the Options menu, click Custom Controls. 2 In the Customize Controls dialog box, select the Enable Joystick option. If the Enable Joystick option is unavailable, check the Windows control panel to ensure that the joystick is properly installed for use with Windows. To Adjust the Sensitivity of a Joystick You can make an aircraft respond more quickly to joystick inputs by changing settings on the Sensitivities tab of the Customize Controls dialog box. 1 Click Custom Controls on the Options menu and then click the Sensitivities tab. 2 Make sure the Enable Joystick option is turned on. 3 Under Control Device, select Joystick. 4 Under Axis, Null Zone, and Sensitivity, select options to customize the joystick. To reset all sensitivity options to their default values, click Reset Defaults. To Customize Joystick Buttons and Controls You can re-assign joystick buttons and controls to suit your preferences and you can assign additional actions to joystick buttons and controls. 1 Click Custom Controls on the Options menu and then click the Assignments tab. 2 Follow the instructions on the Assignments tab to select actions and assign them to specific joystick buttons and controls. Related Topics Controlling the Airplane with a Joystick Controlling the Helicopter with a Joystick Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts Basic Keyboard Controls Controlling the Airplane with a Mouse Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


Installing, Calibrating, and Testing Joysticks
	Installing, Calibrating, and Testing Joysticks You can use any joystick recognized by Windows with Flight Simulator. You must install the appropriate Windows drivers to use a joystick with Flight Simulator. Windows includes drivers for many popular joysticks, but many joystick manufacturers maintain Web sites or bulletin boards where you can download updated or new drivers for their products. In general, if you have trouble using a joystick with Flight Simulator, check the Control Panel in Windows to make sure that the joystick is properly installed and configured for use with Windows. Then make sure that Flight Simulator is set to use a joystick. Connecting and Setting Up Joysticks 1 Turn off your computer and connect the joystick or other devices according to the manufacturer’s instructions. 2 If the joystick or other device came with special software, set up that software according to the manufacturer’s instructions. You may also find the latest software for your joystick on a Web site or electronic bulletin board maintained by the manufacturer. Look for information about how to obtain the latest drivers in the documentation that came with your joystick or other device. Calibrating and Testing the Joysticks After you connect the joystick or other device and set up the special software, if any, you can calibrate and test the device. 1 In Flight Simulator, click Custom Controls on the Options menu. 2 In the Customize Controls dialog box, click the Sensitivities tab. 3 Make sure the Enable Joystick option is turned on. 4 Click Calibrate. Related Topics Controlling the Airplane with a Joystick Controlling the Helicopter with a Joystick Testing Joysticks Calibrating Joysticks Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts


Testing Joysticks
	Testing Joysticks After you have installed one or more joysticks, you should test and calibrate them for use with Flight Simulator. Each brand of joystick has slight differences in feel, sensitivity, and response. To Test Joysticks After you connect the joystick or other device and set up the special software, if any, you can calibrate and test the device. 1 In Flight Simulator, click Custom Controls on the Options menu. 2 In the Customize Controls dialog box, click the Sensitivities tab. 3 Make sure the Enable Joystick option is turned on. 4 Click Calibrate. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Controlling the Airplane with a Joystick Controlling the Helicopter with a Joystick Calibrating Joysticks Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts


Calibrating Joysticks
	Calibrating Joysticks After you connect the joystick or other device and install the appropriate Windows drivers, you can calibrate and test the device. To Calibrate Joysticks 1 In Flight Simulator, click Custom Controls on the Options menu. 2 In the Customize Controls dialog box, click the Sensitivities tab. 3 Make sure the Enable Joystick option is turned on. 4 Click Calibrate. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Controlling the Airplane with a Joystick Controlling the Helicopter with a Joystick Testing Joysticks Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts


Adjusting Joystick Sensitivity
	Adjusting Joystick Sensitivity Flight Simulator's preset sensitivity for joysticks is in the middle of the range, and the response rate is average. You can adjust these sensitivities. Experiment to find the setting you like best. To Adjust the Sensitivity of a Joystick 1 Click Custom Controls on the Options menu and then click the Sensitivities tab. 2 Make sure the Enable Joystick option is turned on. 3 Under Control Device, select Joystick. 4 Under Axis, Null Zone, and Sensitivity, select options to customize the joystick. To reset all sensitivity options to their default values, click Reset Defaults. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Controlling the Airplane with a Joystick Controlling the Helicopter with a Joystick Testing Joysticks Calibrating Joysticks Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts


Controlling the Airplane with a Joystick
	Controlling the Airplane with a Joystick Most joysticks and flight yokes can control both the basic flight controls (ailerons and elevator) and the throttle, brakes, and other features. Some joysticks, like the Microsoft Sidewinder 3D Pro, also have built-in rudder. control. If your joystick does not include all these features, you can still use the keyboard to adjust power, apply brakes, raise and lower flaps, and so forth. Basic Flight Controls Move the stick forward and back to move the elevator and adjust the aircraft’s pitch attitude. Moving the stick left or right moves the ailerons and banks the wings. If the joystick supports rudder control, twisting the stick moves the rudder (if the auto-coordination feature is turned off). NOTE: Regardless of whether you use a stick like the Microsoft Sidewinder 3D Pro or separate pedals to control the rudder, make sure you turn off the Auto-coordination option before trying to control the rudder. To turn auto-coordination on or off, click the Aircraft menu, then click Aircraft Settings. On the Realism tab, make sure Auto-coordination is off. Throttle If your joystick has a throttle control (usually a lever rotating wheel or knob on the base of the stick), you can increase or decrease engine power by moving the lever or wheel. If your joystick does not have a throttle control, you can increase or decrease power smoothly by holding down the F3 or F2 key, respectively. Using Joystick Buttons Most joysticks have several buttons. You can use these buttons to apply or release the brakes, raise and lower the flaps, and so forth. To determine which buttons are assigned to particular controls, experiment with the joystick or check the settings in the Customize Controls dialog box. To Customize Joystick Buttons and Controls You can re-assign joystick buttons and controls to suit your preferences and you can assign additional actions to joystick buttons and controls. 1 Click Custom Controls on the Options menu and then click the Assignments tab. 2 Follow the instructions on the Assignments tab to select actions and assign them to specific joystick buttons and controls. Related Topics Basic Keyboard Controls Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Controlling the Helicopter with a Joystick Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts


Controlling the Helicopter with a Joystick
	Controlling the Helicopter with a Joystick You can use a joystick to operate the basic flight and power controls for the Bell 206B JetRanger III helicopter. Basic Flight Controls The stick itself controls the cyclic, which controls the helicopter’s pitch attitude in flight and movement over the ground while in a hover. If you have a joystick like the Microsoft Sidewinder 3D Pro, you can twist the stick to apply left or right anti-torque pedal pressure. Power Controls The lever or wheel on the joystick that you use as a throttle in airplanes is the collective when flying a helicopter. This level controls the amount of power, or torque, developed by the main rotor. Normally, the fuel control unit automatically adjusts the throttle (engine speed) as you move the collective. To control the throttle independently, press CTRL+F2 key to decrease power and CTRL+F3 key to increase power. Monitor the power turbine gauge to set engine power as a percentage of power turbine RPM. NOTE: Regardless of whether you use a stick like the Microsoft Sidewinder 3D Pro or separate pedals, make sure you turn off the Auto-coordination option before trying to control the anti-torque pedals with a joystick. To turn autocoordination on or off, click the Aircraft menu, then click Aircraft Settings. On the Realism tab, make sure Auto-coordination is off. Related Topics Basic Keyboard Controls Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts


Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts
	Customizing Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts You can re-assign actions to joystick buttons and controls or to keyboard shortcuts so that the features you use most often are readily accessible. To Customize Joystick Buttons and Keyboard Shortcuts 1 On the Options menu, click Custom Controls. 2 Click the Assignments tab. 3 Under Action, select the action you want to assign to a keyboard shortcut or joystick button. 4 Click Assign. 5 To assign a keyboard shortcut, click the Keyboard column next to the action you want to assign. To assign the action to a joystick button or control, click the Joystick column next to the action you want to assign. 6 Press the keyboard shortcut, the joystick button or joystick control that you want to assign to that action. 7 To assign additional actions to keyboard shortcuts or joystick buttons, repeat steps 3-6. 8 When you finish assigning actions, click OK. To Remove a Specific Action from a Joystick Button or Keyboard Shortcut 1 On the Options menu, click Custom Controls. 2 Click the Assignments tab. 3 To remove a keyboard shortcut, click the Keyboard column next to the action you want to clear. To remove an action from a joystick button or control, click the Joystick column next to the action you want to clear. 4 Click Clear. 5 To remove additional keyboard shortcuts or joystick assignments, repeat steps 3-6. 6 When you finish removing assignments, click OK. To Restore Default Assignments for Joystick Buttons or Keyboard Shortcuts 1 On the Options menu, click Custom Controls. 2 Click the Assignments tab. 3 To restore the default settings for the keyboard or joystick buttons, click in either the Keyboard or Game Device column. 4 Click Reset Defaults and then click OK. NOTE: If you use a joystick like the Microsoft Sidewinder 3D Pro that includes rudder capability or have separate rudder pedals, make sure you turn off the Auto-coordination option before trying to use those controls. To turn autocoordination on or off, click the Aircraft menu, then click Aircraft Settings. On the Realism tab, make sure Auto-coordination is off. Related Topics Basic Keyboard Controls Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Controlling the Helicopter with a Joystick


Using Flight Simulator: Introduction
	Using Flight Simulator: Introduction This section of Help includes detailed information about using Flight Simulator. You'll find procedures for choosing an aircraft, changing your location or the weather, using flight instruments, controlling aircraft systems, customizing the way Flight Simulator works, keyboard shortcuts, and so forth. At the bottom of each topic in this section you'll find a Related Topics section with links to other parts of Help that contain additional information about the current subject. Other Parts of Help If you want to know more about aerodynamics, flight controls, instruments, weather, regulations, and other aviation topics, look in the Flight School section of Help. For more information about the aircraft in Flight Simulator, look in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. For more information about the lessons and adventures you can fly in Flight Simulator, look in the Preflight Briefings section of Help. You can quickly find specific information in any part of Help by clicking the Index or Contents button at the top of the Help window. If you need help with a specific word or phrase, try the Glossary. Printing a Topic You can print any topic. Just click the Print button at the top of the Help window. Related Topics The Flight Simulator Ground School Aircraft Handbooks: Introduction Preflight Briefings: Introduction


Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots
	Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots In Flight Simulator 98 you can enjoy formation flights, aerobatic competitions, and similar activities with other Flight Simulator pilots who are also using Flight Simulator 98. A multiplayer session can generally host up to 8 Flight Simulator aircraft simultaneously. You can also join a session as an observer to watch, but not participate, in the action. Ways To Connect You can join or host a multiplayer session by: • Connecting to the Internet through your Internet Service Provider (ISP) or through the Internet Gaming Zone (www.zone.com). • Connecting to a server or another computer on a Local Area Network (LAN). • Using a modem or null modem cable to connect directly to another computer. Connection Recommendations The multiplayer connection feature in Flight Simulator can usually establish a connection to the Internet or via a LAN, but it’s often best to connect to your ISP or LAN before starting or joining a multiplayer session. Connection Types Before you start a multiplayer session, make sure you understand which connection method you should use. The following table lists the most common connection types. Connection Method Connection Type Internet connection TCP/IP LAN connection TCP/IP or IPX Direct modem connection   over phone lines Modem Direct modem connection   via a null modem cable Serial connection Finding IP Addresses If you select the TCP/IP connection type, you may see a message asking you to supply the name or IP address of a computer that’s hosting a Flight Simulator session. Sometimes the person who is hosting the session can supply you with this information via email or a phone call before the session starts. If you host a session, you can easily find the IP address that you need to send to others. From an MS-DOS box, type: winipcfg Some types of Internet or LAN connections assign IP address automatically, however, and you may have to “ping” the system to find the address or name of the computer that’s hosting the Flight Simulator session you want to join. To ping the system you must know the domain name (for example, user@host.com). From an MS-DOS box, type: ping user@host.com Where “user” is the name of the person who is hosting the multiplayer session you want to join. Related Topics Starting a Multiplayer Session Setting Multiplayer Options


Starting a Multiplayer Session
	Starting a Multiplayer Session To start flying with other Flight Simulator pilots, you must have a connection to the Internet, a local area network (LAN), or use a modem to connect to another computer. You can also connect two computers directly with a null-modem cable. You should also decide if you will host a session for other pilots or if you want to join an existing session. You can search for existing sessions after you start the connection process. To Start a Multiplayer Session If you’re planning to join host a multiplayer session on the Internet Gaming Zone (www.zone.com), you don’t have to be connected to the Internet before you start a multiplayer session in Flight Simulator. To connect automatically to the Internet Gaming Zone, click the Find Other Pilots To Fly With On the Internet button in the Multiplayer Connect dialog box. If you’re connecting via an Internet Service Provider (ISP) to join other pilots, it’s usually best to connect to your ISP first and then start the multiplayer session from within Flight Simulator. 1  On the Flights menu, click Multiplayer. 2 Follow the instructions in the Multiplayer Connect dialog boxes. During the startup process, you may see a message asking for the computer name or IP address of the session host. You may get this information via email or telephone before starting the session. If you don’t know this information, leave the address field blank and click OK. Flight Simulator will search for the IP address of active Flight Simulator session(s). TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Setting Multiplayer Options Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots


Setting Multiplayer Options
	Setting Multiplayer Options You can set several options that help you keep track of other pilots during a multiplayer session. For example, you can use the ADF and DME displays on the instrument panel to show you where another aircraft is relative to your airplane. You can also use the autopilot to make your airplane follow another aircraft automatically. Displaying Pilot Names You can display the names of the other pilots next to their aircraft as they fly. To see the names, click the Display Player Names option in the Session Settings dialog box. To display the Sessions Settings dialog box after you start a multiplayer session, on the Flights menu, click Multiplayer, and then click Settings. Getting Together You may want to check the chat window that opens when you start a multiplayer session to send a message to the other pilots to find out where they’re flying. You may need to use the Go To Location command (World menu) to position your aircraft near the others. Sending and Receiving Messages During a multiplayer session, a chat window opens automatically on your screen so you can send and receive messages to and from other pilots. If the chat window is closed, messages from other pilots appear as scrolling text in a bar at the top of the Flight Simulator window. To toggle the chat window on and off, press CTRL+ENTER. To switch between the main window and the chat window, press ENTER. Tracking Options To track another pilot, you must first select tracking options (such as Autopilot Lock To Aircraft) and then lock onto one of the aircraft in the multiplayer session. To Set Multiplayer Options 1 On the Flights menu, click Multiplayer, then click Settings. 2 In the Session Settings dialog box, click the options you want to set. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. To Lock Onto Another Aircraft • Press CTRL+SHIFT+T to cycle through players. You’ll see the name of the pilot you’re currently locked to in the lower-right corner of your Flight Simulator window. ADF Tracking If you select ADF tracking, Flight Simulator automatically displays the ADF indicator on your instrument panel (on the Cessna Skylane RG and the Extra 300S). The needle points to the currently selected aircraft. DME Tracking If your aircraft is equipped with DME, you can see how far you are from the aircraft you’re tracking. The number 1 DME indicator shows the distance to the selected aircraft in nautical miles. Autopilot Tracking You can make your airplane automatically follow the currently selected aircraft. First select the Autopilot Lock To Aircraft option in the Session Settings dialog box (see the procedure “To Set Multiplayer Options” above). Next, turn on your autopilot and select heading and/or altitude hold to stay locked onto the other aircraft. Press CTL+SHIFT+F to lock into position directly behind the airplane you’re tracking. Be careful if you’re flying an airplane that’s faster than the one you’re tracking. You may overtake and collide with the aircraft you’re following. Crashes If you crash during a multiplayer session, your aircraft is returned to the point at which you started the multiplayer session. Detail Options You can also set detail options to improve your system’s performance or to make multiplayer sessions more realistic. For example, you can choose to send and receive detailed models of the other aircraft to improve how they look on your screen and to make your airplane look more realistic to other pilots. To improve performance during a multiplayer session, you can turn these options off. Using Observer Mode • You can’t switch from observer mode to pilot mode unless you leave the session and rejoin as a pilot. • To switch to observer mode if you have joined a session as a pilot, press CTRL+SHIFT+O. As an observer, you can lock to another aircraft’s cockpit view to see the instrument panel of that aircraft. First, select and track that aircraft (press CTRL+SHIFT+T until you see the name of the aircraft you want to track). Then press CTRL+SHIFT+D to lock to that aircraft’s cockpit view. Related Topics Starting a Multiplayer Session Activating and Tuning the ADF Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Using the Autopilot Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots


Pausing Flight Simulator
	Pausing Flight Simulator You can pause Flight Simulator at any time. By default, Flight Simulator also pauses automatically whenever you open Help or switch to another Windows application. To Pause Flight Simulator • To pause Flight Simulator with a mouse, on the Options menu, click Pause Flight. A check mark beside the command indicates that Flight Simulator is paused. Click Pause Flight again to resume flying. • To pause Flight Simulator with the keyboard, press P. Press P again to resume flying. To Control When Flight Simulator Pauses If you want Flight Simulator to continue running when you open Help or switch to another application, you can change an option in the Preferences dialog box. 1 On the Options menu, click Preferences. 2 On the General tab of the Preferences dialog box, click Pause on Task Switch if you want Flight Simulator to pause when you switch to another applications. Clear this option if you want Flight Simulator to continue running while you work in other applications. Related Topic Changing Simulation Rate


Changing Simulation Rate
	Changing Simulation Rate If you're on a long flight and want to speed up your progress, you can change the simulation speed in Flight Simulator. You can also slow down the simulation speed to observe changes more easily. To Change Simulation Rate You can change the simulation speed by clicking the Simulation Rate Indicator near the clock on the instrument panel or by selecting an option next to Simulation Rate on the Options menu. • To set the simulation speed with the Simulation Rate Indicator, click the left side of the digits to decrease the simulation rate. Click the right side of the digits to increase the simulation rate. • To set the simulation rate with the menu, on the Options menu, click Simulation Rate, and then click the speed you want. TIP: The normal simulation rate is 1.0. Choosing a lower number slows the simulation; choosing a higher number speeds up the simulation. Related Topic Pausing Flight Simulator


Watching an Instant Replay
	Watching an Instant Replay Flight Simulator records your actions as you fly. You can play back the most recent part of your flight to see yourself in action. To Watch an Instant Replay 1 On the Options menu, click Instant Replay. 2 In the Replay Length and Replay Speed boxes, type or select the settings you want. 3 If you want the replay to run continuously, click Repeat Replay Continuously, and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Saving a Flight Recording a Flight Video


Analyzing Your Flight
	Analyzing Your Flight The flight analysis feature of Flight Simulator displays graphs of your flying performance. To See an Analysis of Your Flight 1 On the Options menu, click Flight Analysis. 2 Select the options you want in the dialog box, and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Using Crash Detection Saving a Flight


Creating a Logbook
	Creating a Logbook The Flight Simulator logbook is an abbreviated version of an official pilot's logbook. You can create separate logbooks for each pilot and each aircraft. Make sure you choose the right logbook before you start a flight. To Create a Logbook 1 On the Options menu, click Logbook. 2 Click Add Logbook, and then type a name for your logbook and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Adding a Logbook Entry Editing a Logbook Entry Deleting a Logbook Entry Pilot Logbooks (FAR 61.51)


Deleting a Logbook
	Deleting a Logbook You can delete any logbook you previously created. To Delete a Logbook 1 On the Options menu, click Logbook. 2 Click the logbook you want to delete, and then click Remove Logbook. 3 Click Yes to delete the logbook, or No to cancel, and then click Close. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Editing a Logbook Entry Deleting a Logbook Entry Pilot Logbooks (FAR 61.51)


Adding a Logbook Entry
	Adding a Logbook Entry If you have created a logbook and selected the Log Flight Time option on the General tab of the Preferences dialog box (Options menu), Flight Simulator automatically records flights of six minutes or longer. You can also add information to your logbook. To Add a Logbook Entry 1 On the Options menu, click Logbook. 2 Under Logbook, click the logbook you want, and then click Add Entry. 3 In the Logbook Entry dialog box, fill in the information you want to include about this flight and click OK. 4 In the Logbook dialog box, click Close. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Creating a Logbook Editing a Logbook Entry Deleting a Logbook Entry Pilot Logbooks (FAR 61.51) Saving a Flight


Editing a Logbook Entry
	Editing a Logbook Entry You can change any of the information in your logbooks at any time. To Edit a Logbook Entry 1 On the Options menu, click Logbook. 2 Under Logbook, click the logbook that contains the entry you want to change. 3 Click the logbook entry you want to change, and then click Edit Entry. 4 In the Logbook Entry dialog box, edit the information you want to change and click OK. 5 In the Logbook dialog box, click Close. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Deleting a Logbook Entry Pilot Logbooks (FAR 61.51) Saving a Flight


Deleting a Logbook Entry
	Deleting a Logbook Entry You can delete entries from any logbook. To Delete a Logbook Entry 1 On the Options menu, click Logbook. 2 Under Logbook, click the logbook that contains the entry you want to delete. 3 Under Log Entries, click the logbook entry you want to delete, and then click Remove Entry. 4 When the confirmation message appears, click Yes to delete the entry or No to cancel. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Adding a Logbook Entry Editing a Logbook Entry Creating a Logbook Pilot Logbooks (FAR 61.51) Saving a Flight


Turning Sounds On and Off
	Turning Sounds On and Off You can listen to realistic engine and control sounds while you're flying, or turn them off so your boss will think you're still working on that late report. To Turn Sound On or Off • To turn sound on or off with a mouse, on the Options menu, click Sound. A check mark beside the command indicates that sound is turned on. • To turn sound on or off with the keyboard, press Q. To Control Specific Sounds You can turn specific sounds (engine noise, wind noise, cockpit switches, and so forth) on and off and adjust the volume of individual sounds. 1 On the Options menu, click Preferences. 2 Click the Sound tab. 3 To turn a specific sound on or off, click the button next to the sound name. 4 To adjust the volume of a specific sound, make sure the option for that sound is turned on, then drag the appropriate slider. Move the slider left to lower the volume; move it right to increase the volume. Related Topic Setting Engine Options


Customizing Flight Simulator Preferences
	Customizing Flight Simulator Preferences When you install Flight Simulator, the Setup program determines your system configuration and which options to enable at startup based on the choices you made during installation. General Options You can change many settings at any time to control such options as overall performance, instrument settings, the units of measure displayed in dialog boxes, and so forth. You change these settings in the Preferences dialog box (Options menu). Aircraft Options You can also set many aircraft-related options such as the responsiveness of the flight controls, engine reliability, instrument displays, and so forth. You set these options in the Aircraft Settings dialog box (Aircraft menu). Customizing Joysticks and the Keyboard You can also customize the actions assigned to joystick buttons and controls and key combinations. You change these settings in the Customize Controls dialog box (Options menu) To Set General Preferences 1 On the Options menu, click Preferences. 2 Click the General, Instrument, International, Display & Sound, Controls, or Flight Options tab, and then select the options you want. 3 To reset all options to their original values, click Defaults and then click OK. To Set Aircraft Preferences 1 On the Aircraft menu, click Aircraft Settings. 2 Click the Realism, Reliability, Crash/Damage, Engines, Fuel, or Instrument Display tab, and then select the options you want. To Customize Joysticks or the Keyboard 1 On the Options menu, click Custom Controls. 2 To change the actions assigned to joystick buttons or key combinations, click the Assignments tab. To adjust the responsiveness of the flight controls, click the Sensitivities tab. 3 To assign actions to a joystick button or key combination, click the action you want to assign, click the Assign button, and the press the joystick button or key combination you want to assign to that action. When you finish assigning actions, click OK. 4 To adjust control sensitivity, on the Sensitivities tab, move the slider controls. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topic Making Your Flights More Realistic


Using the Airport/Facility Directory
	Using the Airport/Facility Directory Pilot's Help includes an Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) that lists information about the airports, VORs, and NDBs in the Flight Simulator navigation database. The A/FD is organized by geographic region (Africa, Europe, Mid. East, Asia, and so forth). The information for the U.S. is further organized into regions and states. The airport information includes the airport name, location, elevation, runway information, and the frequencies and identifiers for the ATIS and any ILS approaches available at that airport. The VOR and NDB information includes the facility name and type, location, ID, and frequency. To Use the Airport/Facility Directory 1 On the World menu, click Airport/Facility Directory. 2 On the world map, click the region that includes the airport or facility you want more information about. 3 If you click the U.S. region, when the U.S. map appears, click the region and then the state you're interested in. 4 Scroll through the list to find the information you want, or click the option buttons to go directly to information about airports, VORs, or NDBs. Related Topics The Flight Environment: Introduction Navigation: Introduction


Making Your Flights More Realistic
	Making Your Flights More Realistic Flight Simulator includes many options you can set to make your flights more challenging and realistic. For example, you can adjust the sensitivity of the flight controls, increase the probability that an engine or instrument will fail, run out of fuel if you don't refill the tanks, change how Flight Simulator reacts when you crash, and so forth. You set these options on the tabs of the Aircraft Settings dialog box (Aircraft menu). To Change Aircraft Settings 1 On the Aircraft menu, click Aircraft Settings. 2 Select the Realism, Reliability, Crash/Damage, Engines, Fuel, or Instrument Display tab, select the options you want, and then click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Using Crash Detection Setting Engine Options Setting Instrument Options Setting Fuel Options Turning Auto-Coordination On and Off


Turning Auto-Coordination On and Off
	Turning Auto-Coordination On and Off By default, Flight Simulator moves the rudder (or anti-torque pedals in the helicopter) automatically to maintain coordinated flight. If you have rudder pedals or a joystick such as the Microsoft Sidewinder that supports rudder control, you can add realism to your flights by turning off auto-coordination. Many aerobatic maneuvers require that you turn off auto-coordination. To Turn Auto-Coordination On or Off 1 On the Aircraft menu, click Aircraft Settings. 2 Click the Realism tab. 3 Click Auto-coordination to turn this option on or off, and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics The Axes of Flight Turns Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Turn Coordinator


Using Crash Detection
	Using Crash Detection Flight Simulator is set to alert you when your plane crashes and then immediately reset the flight. You can change these settings to review your flight path after a crash. 1 On the Aircraft menu, click Aircraft Settings. 2 Click the Crash/Damage tab. 3 Select the options you want in the dialog box, and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Setting Engine Options Setting Fuel Options


Setting Engine Options
	Setting Engine Options The engines on the aircraft in Flight Simulator start automatically. The controls for operating the engines on the Cessna Skylane and Extra 300S are also simplified so that you do not need to adjust the mixture control or operate the propeller control. For more realistic flights, you can change these options to start and shut down the engines on any aircraft manually and use the mixture and propeller controls on the Cessna Skylane RG and Extra 300S. If you're flying the Learjet 45 or the Boeing 737-400, you can select whether the jet engines will flame out if you try to fly too high or mishandle the engine controls. To Change Engine Options 1 On the Aircraft menu, click Aircraft Settings. 2 Click the Engines tab. 3 Select the options you want in the dialog box, and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Setting Fuel Options Fuel System Piston Engine Controls Propellers Turbine Engine Controls


Setting Fuel Options
	Setting Fuel Options The engines on the aircraft in Flight Simulator are set so that they never run out of fuel. For more realistic flights, you can change this option so that you must land periodically to refuel and manage the fuel supply by switching fuel tanks. You can refuel by taxiing into a yellow square marked with a "F" at many airports. Some airports also have fuel pumps next to the refueling area. Your tanks fill automatically when you stop in the refueling area. To Set Fuel Options 1 On the Aircraft menu, click Aircraft Settings. 2 Click the Fuel tab. 3 Select the options you want in the dialog box, and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Setting Engine Options Fuel System


Setting Instrument Options
	Setting Instrument Options You can cover certain instruments to practice flying without them, or make some instruments malfunction to test your skills in emergencies. To Set Instrument Options 1 On the Aircraft menu, click Aircraft Settings. 2 Click the Instrument Display tab. 3 Select the options you want in the dialog box, and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Setting Engine Options Setting Fuel Options The Pitot Static Instruments Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments


Setting the Altimeter
	Setting the Altimeter As you fly, it’s important to make sure that you use the current altimeter setting. Otherwise, the altimeter may not show the correct altitude. Altimeter errors can become quite large if you select the Drift option on the Pressure tab of the Advanced Weather dialog box and then fly long distances without updating the altimeter setting. You can quickly update the altimeter to the current pressure or set the altimeter to a specific pressure. To Set the Altimeter to the Current Pressure • Press B. To Set the Altimeter to a Specific Setting 1 On the Aircraft menu, click Aircraft Settings. 2 Click the Realism tab. 3 Under Altimeter Setting, type the setting you want to use. You can type the setting in inches of mercury (Hg) or in millibars. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics The Pitot Static Instruments Altimeter Altimeter Errors


Creating a Flight
	Creating a Flight You can create and save flights that use a specific aircraft and start from a specific location. You can also set the weather and other options for a flight and save all your changes so it's easy to fly again with the same starting conditions. You can also create a default flight that starts automatically when you start Flight Simulator. Flights you save are stored in the Pilots directory of the directory where you installed Flight Simulator. To Create a Flight 1 On the Flights menu, click Create Flight. The Create Flight dialog box appears so you can select an aircraft, airport, weather, and time of day. 2 In the Create Flight dialog box, click each option you want to change. Each time you click an option, you'll see another dialog box where you can make specific changes. Then you'll be returned to the Create Flight dialog box so you can select other options. 3 When you finish selecting options and are ready to save the flight, click Save in the Create Flight dialog box. In the Save Flight dialog box, type a title and description for the flight. If you want to make the flight you created the default startup flight, click the Make This The Default Flight option. 4 Click OK to start flying. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Saving a Flight Choosing a Flight Resetting a Flight Setting the Default Flight Deleting a Flight Choosing a Lesson Flying a Challenge Flying an Adventure


Choosing a Flight
	Choosing a Flight You can select a flight supplied with Flight Simulator or a flight that you've created and saved. To Choose a Flight 1 On the Flights menu, click Select Flight. The list that appears shows flights supplied with Flight Simulator and flights that you've created. 2 Select the flight you want from the list in the dialog box and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Creating a Flight Saving a Flight Setting the Default Flight Resetting a Flight Deleting a Flight Choosing a Lesson Flying a Challenge Flying an Adventure


Choosing a Lesson
	Choosing a Lesson Flight Simulator includes lessons to help you master basic flying skills such as taking off, flying a traffic pattern and landing. You can fly the lesson yourself and get help from the instructor, or for some lessons, you can watch the instructor fly the maneuvers. You'll find background information on each lesson in the Preflight Briefings section of Help. To Choose a Lesson 1 On the Flights menu, click Lessons. 2 Select the flight you want from the list in the dialog box. 3 If you want to fly the lesson yourself, under Aircraft Control, click Student. If an instructor demonstration of the lesson is available and you want to watch the instructor fly the lesson, click Instructor. 4 To start the lesson, click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Flying a Challenge Flying an Adventure Creating a Flight Saving a Flight Resetting a Flight Deleting a Flight


Flying a Challenge
	Flying a Challenge Flight Simulator includes dozens of flying challenges that test your skills in a variety of aircraft and take you to interesting locations. You can try to land on an aircraft carrier, fly a perfect instrument approach, or just enjoy spectacular scenery. To Fly a Challenge 1 On the Flights menu, click Challenges. 2 Select the flight you want from the list in the dialog box and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Choosing a Lesson Flying an Adventure Creating a Flight Saving a Flight Setting the Default Flight Resetting a Flight Deleting a Flight


Flying an Adventure
	Flying an Adventure When you're ready for a longer flight, complete with instructions from ATC (and sometimes help from a copilot), try flying an adventure. Flight Simulator includes several adventures that test your skills in a variety of aircraft and take you to interesting locations. You'll find background information on each adventure in the Preflight Briefings section of Help. You'll also want to have the charts in the Pilot's Handbook handy. To Fly an Adventure 1 On the Flights menu, click Adventures. 2 Select the adventure you want from the list in the dialog box and click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Choosing a Lesson Flying a Challenge Creating a Flight Saving a Flight Setting the Default Flight Resetting a Flight Deleting a Flight


Resetting a Flight
	Resetting a Flight You can restart any flight at any time. If you crash, Flight Simulator automatically resets the most recent flight. To Reset a Flight • On the Flights menu, click Reset Flight. • To reset a flight with the keyboard, press CTRL+ ; (semicolon) Related Topics Creating a Flight Saving a Flight Setting the Default Flight Renaming a Flight


Saving a Flight
	Saving a Flight You can modify a flight supplied with Flight Simulator or create and save flights of your own. If you want to create a flight quickly, follow the procedure in the topic "Creating a Flight." If you want to set all the conditions for a flight yourself and then save a flight, follow this procedure. Flights you save are stored in the Pilots directory of the directory where you installed Flight Simulator. To Save a Flight 1 Set all the conditions you want to save, either by following the procedure in the topic "Creating a Flight" or by choosing commands and setting options yourself. 2 On the Flights menu, click Save Flight. 3 In the Save Flight dialog box, type a title and description for your flight, and then click OK. If you want to make this flight the default startup flight, select the Make This The Default Flight option. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Choosing a Flight Creating a Flight Setting the Default Flight Renaming a Flight Deleting a Flight


Renaming a Flight
	Renaming a Flight You can change the name of a flight that you created. You cannot rename flights supplied with Flight Simulator. Flights you save are stored in the Pilots directory of the directory where you installed Flight Simulator. To Rename a Flight  1 On the Flight menu, click Select Flight. 2 Under Available Flights, select the flight you want to rename. 3 Under Available Flights, type a new title. Under Description, type a new description for the flight, and then click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Choosing a Flight Creating a Flight Setting the Default Flight Deleting a Flight


Deleting a Flight
	Deleting a Flight You can delete any flight you created. You cannot delete the flights supplied with Flight Simulator. Flights you save are stored in the Pilots directory of the directory where you installed Flight Simulator. To Delete a Flight 1 On the Flights menu, click Select Flight. 2 Select the flight you want and click Delete. You will see a message asking if you're sure you want to delete the selected flight. Click Yes to delete, or No to keep the flight. 3 Click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Renaming a Flight Saving a Flight Setting the Default Flight


Setting the Default Flight
	Setting the Default Flight You can change the default flight so that Flight Simulator starts at the location and with the aircraft, weather, time of day, and other options you choose. You can make any flight the default startup flight. You can use a flight supplied with Flight Simulator or a flight that you created and saved yourself. To Set the Default Startup Flight 1 On the Flights menu, click Select Flight. 2 Under Available Flights, select the flight you want to use as the default flight. 3 Click Make This The Default Flight. 4 Click OK. Related Topics Creating a Flight Saving a Flight


Playing a Flight Video
	Playing a Flight Video You can replay flights that you've recorded with the video recorder. To Play a Flight Video 1 On the Options menu, click Flight Video. 2 Select a video from the list, and then click Play. 3 To stop the video, press ESC. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Recording a Flight Video Renaming a Flight Video Deleting a Flight Video


Recording a Flight Video
	Recording a Flight Video You can record your best—or worst—moments in the air with the video recorder in Flight Simulator. To Record a Flight Video 1 On the Options menu, click Flight Video. 2 Under Recording Interval, select the rate at which you want to record the video. Increasing the rate makes the video file larger but improves the video quality. Decreasing the rate makes the file smaller but may affect the quality of the video. 3 To make the video repeat automatically whenever you play it back, click Repeat Replay. 4 Click Record New. 5 When you're finished recording, click Flight Video on the Options menu again. You can review the video, resume recording, or save or discard the video. 6 Under Video Title, type a name and description for the video, and then click Save. Adding Messages to a Flight Video You can add text comments and messages to a flight video as you record. These messages appear as text that scrolls across the top of the screen when you play the video. To Add Messages to a Flight Video 1 Follow the procedure "To Record a Flight Video" to start recording a video. 2 When you reach the point where you want to add a text message, press the < key. 3 When the Video Message dialog box appears, type the text you want to appear when the video plays. You can type up to 55 characters for each message. 4 Repeat this procedure at each point where you want to add a message. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Playing a Flight Video Renaming a Flight Video Deleting a Flight Video


Renaming a Flight Video
	Renaming a Flight Video You can change the name of a video that you've recorded. To Rename a Flight Video 1 On the Options menu, click Flight Video. 2 Under Video Title, select the video you want to rename. 3 Under Video Title, type a new title for the video. To change the description, under Description, type the new information. 4 Click Close. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Playing a Flight Video Deleting a Flight Video


Deleting a Flight Video
	Deleting a Flight Video You can delete a video that you recorded. To Delete a Flight Video 1 On the Options menu, click Flight Video. 2 Under Video Title, click the video you want to delete from the list, and then click Delete. 3 To delete the video, click Yes; to cancel, click No; and then click OK. TIP: If you need help with any dialog box options, click the [image] in the upper-right corner of the dialog box. The mouse pointer becomes a question mark. Point to the item you aren't sure of and click the left mouse button. Related Topics Playing a Flight Video Renaming a Flight Video Recording a Flight Video


Taking and Saving a Flight Photograph
	Taking and Saving a Flight Photograph You can take snapshots as you fly, capturing the view out the window or scenes of your airplane as seen from "spot plane" or "tower view." Because Flight Simulator is a Windows application, you use the print screen feature to capture a bitmap image of the view you want to save. To Take a Flight Photograph 1 Switch to the view (cockpit, tower, or spot plane view) from which you want to take a photograph. 2 To copy an image of the Flight Simulator window, press ALT+PRINT SCREEN. To capture an image of all windows and the desktop, press the PRINT SCREEN key. The image you capture is copied to the Windows clipboard as a bitmap (BMP) file. 3 To view the photograph, start Paint or another application that can display bitmap (BMP) images. In that application, click Paste on the Edit menu. 4 To save the photograph, click Save on the File menu of the application in which you viewed the photograph, and then type a name and location for the file. Related Topics Choosing a View or Direction Playing a Flight Video Renaming a Flight Video Recording a Flight Video


Dallas to Denver: Boeing 737-400
	Dallas to Denver: Boeing 737-400 On this adventure, you're the captain of Bluesky 737 on a flight from Dallas Ft. Worth International Airport (DFW) to the Denver International Airport (DEN). This is a daytime flight during the summer. Preflight Checks It's a good idea to review the topics about the Boeing 737-400 in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll find background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. In addition, you should be familiar with: • VOR navigation • ILS approaches You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Clearance Here is your ATC clearance for this flight. (If you need information about the airports, VORs, or NDBs along your route, check the Airport/Facility Directory on the World menu.) BLUESKY 737 is cleared to the Denver International Airport via direct Wichita Falls, J168 Lamar, J20 Falcon, direct, maintain flight level 350. Squawk 3327. Specific Routing After takeoff, climb to 2,000 ft then turn right to heading 240. At 20 nm DME from DFW, turn right to heading 270 to intercept the Wichita Falls (SPS) VOR 140-degree radial inbound (i.e., the inbound course is 320 degrees). Cross SPS above FL 310 (31,000 ft) and continue climbing to FL 350. As you cross SPS, join J168 (the 313-degree radial). Maintain FL 350. About 160 miles from SPS, switch to the Lamar (LAA) VOR and fly inbound on the 128-degree radial (inbound course 308). When you reach LAA, fly outbound on the 298 radial, which forms part of J20. Maintain FL 350. Continue on J20 toward the Hugo (HGO) VOR. You should be flying course 298 degrees. When you're about 25 nm from HGO, expect a clearance to descend to 7,000 with the restriction that you must cross the Falcon (FQF) VOR below 9,000. ATC will advise that you should expect vectors for the runway 35 left ILS at Denver. At about 16 nm before you reach FQF, expect instructions to fly heading 300 to intercept the ILS. Adventure and Situation Files This adventure requires the files B3DFWDEN.ADV and B3DFW17R.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Flying an Adventure Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Boeing 737-400: Introduction VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS)


Movie Stunt Flying: Extra 300S
	Movie Stunt Flying: Extra 300S This adventure puts you in the seat of the Extra 300S to capture a chase scene through Las Vegas for a major motion picture. Try turning on the video recorder so you can play back the scenes. Preflight Checks It's a good idea to review the topics about the Extra 300S in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll find background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Instructions Here are your specific instructions for this adventure: Extra 328PW, fly west to the airport boundary and then north over the Strip. Pass the Luxor (the pyramid-shaped hotel) below 2,300 feet, maintain less than 2,300 ft (below the building tops) until passing the Stratosphere (the tall tower at the north end of the Strip). Adventure and Situation Files This adventure requires the files EXLSTWGS.ADV and EXLAS25R.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Extra 300S: Introduction Recording a Flight Video Flying an Adventure Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction


Day Trip to Martha's Vineyard: Cessna Skylane RG
	Day Trip to Martha's Vineyard: Cessna Skylane RG This adventure takes you to what promises to be a pleasant hop from Sikorsky Memorial Airport in Connecticut via Block Island to Martha's Vineyard, an island off Cape Cod, Mass. But don't get complacent. Monitor the flight and engine instruments unless you want to practice your backstroke. Preflight Checks It's a good idea to review the topics about the Cessna Skylane in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll find background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. In addition, you should be familiar with the basics of VOR navigation. You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Clearance Here is your ATC clearance for this flight. (If you need information about the airports, VORs, or NDBs along your route, check the Airport/Facility Directory on the World menu.) Fly outbound on the Bridgeport 101 radial to CREAM intersection (13 DME east of Bridgeport). Proceed inbound on the 284 radial to the Sandy Point VOR on Block Island then inbound on the Martha's Vineyard VOR 266-degree radial (i.e., the inbound course is 086). Maintain 3,500 ft and set the transponder to squawk code 2324. Specific Routing As you approach your destination, plan to cross the Martha's Vineyard VOR at 2,000 ft and expect to fly a right-hand traffic pattern to land on runway 6. Adventure and Situation Files This adventure requires the files CRMVIN.ADV and CRBDR11.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Flying an Adventure Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook VOR Navigation


Learjet 45: Try Before You Buy
	Try Before You Buy: Learjet 45 For this adventure, you're kicking the tires on business jets, trying to decide which one best suits your needs. Before attempting this flight, you should be familiar with basic flight controls and understand the fundamentals of VOR navigation and flying an instrument landing system ILS approach. You'll also find it helpful to review the pilot's operating handbook for the Learjet 45 in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll also want to have the chart of the Seattle area handy. It's in the back of the Pilot's Handbook. The Clearance This quick VFR trip takes you south from Paine Field in Everett, WA over Puget Sound. It ends with an ILS approach to runway 13R at Seattle's King County International Airport (Boeing Field). Seattle Approach Control will provide vectors to the final approach course for the ILS. The current owner of the Learjet is also along for the ride to provide flying tips as necessary. Preflight Checks The lesson automatically configures your communication and navigation radios for the first part of the flight. • The ILS is tuned in the number 1 navigation radio, and the EFIS display is activated to make intercepting and flying the ILS a little easier. You can make a visual approach if you choose. • Auto-coordination is turned on to make flying a little easier. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Starting the Flight For more information about starting an adventure, see the topic "Flying an Adventure" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. Related Topics Flying an Adventure Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Learjet 45: Introduction VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS)


Corporate Perks: Learjet 45
	Corporate Perks: Learjet 45 It's a tough job, but someone's got to do it. The company president and family want to spend a week on Martha's Vineyard, an island off Cape Cod, Mass. You have to get them there in the corporate Learjet 45—and hang around if they need to make a quick hop back to Boston. Preflight Checks It's a good idea to review the topics about the Learjet 45 in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll find background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. In addition, you should be familiar with: • VOR navigation • ILS approaches You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Clearance Here is your ATC clearance for this flight. (If you need information about the airports, VORs, or NDBs along your route, check the Airport/Facility Directory on the World menu.) Learjet 45 Lima Juliett is cleared to the Martha's Vineyard airport via direct Marconi, V167 to PEAKE intersection, direct, maintain 17,000 ft and squawk 3212. Specific Routing After takeoff, fly runway heading to the Boston VOR 4.0 DME fix, then turn right to heading 090. After the turn, expect another vector to fly heading 120 and intercept the 340 radial inbound (i.e., the inbound course is 160) to the Marconi (LFV) VOR. Climb and maintain 17,000 ft. After passing LFV, fly outbound on the 227-degree radial and expect a clearance to cross PEAKE intersection (31.4 DME from LFV) below 3,000 ft and maintain 1,500 ft. At PEAKE, expect a clearance to fly the ILS runway 24 approach at Martha's Vineyard. Adventure and Situation Files This adventure requires the files LJCPERKS.ADV and LJBOS04L.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Flying an Adventure Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Learjet 45: Introduction VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS)


Beat the Chunnel Train
	Beat the Chunnel Train:  Boeing 737-400 This flight from Orly airport in Paris to Gatwick airport near London tests jet technology against a fast ground (and underwater) route—the Chunnel Train. You're in command of a Bluesky 737, a Boeing 737-400. Preflight Checks It's a good idea to review the topics about the Boeing 737-400 in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll find background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. In addition, you should be familiar with: • VOR navigation • ILS approaches You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Clearance Here is your ATC clearance for this flight. (If you need information about the airports, VORs, or NDBs along your route, check the Airport/Facility Directory on the World menu.) BLUESKY 737 is cleared to the Gatwick airport via Abbeville 7P departure Abbeville, UA20 Biggin, direct, maintain flight level 200, squawk 3355. Specific Routing After takeoff on runway 25, fly runway heading and continue the climb to FL 200 (20,000 ft). At 7 DME turn left to heading 190 to intercept the Toussus (TSU) VOR 149-degree radial. As you cross the Orly VOR (OL) 217-degree radial (tuned in the Radio Magnetic Indicator, or RMI), turn left to heading about 090 to intercept the Coulommiers (CLM) 243-degree radial inbound (inbound course 063). At 22 DME to CLM, turn left to heading 030 to intercept the Le Bourget (BT) VOR 168-degree radial inbound (inbound course 348). Cross BT at FL 200. Fly outbound from the BT VOR on the 345 radial to Abbeville (ABB). At ABB, fly outbound on the 321 radial. Maintain FL 200. At NASDA intersection (36 DME from ABB), the boundary between the Paris and London control centers, expect a clearance to the Mayfield (MAY) VOR. You'll turn left to heading 290 to intercept the MAY 132 radial inbound to MAY (inbound course 312). At 41 DME from MAY, expect a descent clearance to cross the MAY 30 DME fix at FL 140 (14,000 ft). At 30 DME from MAY, expect a clearance to slow to 250 knots and cross TIMBA intersection, 7 DME from MAY, at FL 40 (4,000 ft). At TIMBA intersection, expect a clearance to descend to cross MAY at 2,000 ft and to expect the ILS–DME runway 26 left approach at Gatwick. As you cross the MAY VOR, slow to 200 knots and track outbound on the MAY 005-degree radial at 2,000 ft. At 4 DME from MAY, expect a left turn to fly heading 330. You'll also receive clearance to fly the ILS–DME runway 26 left approach. Report the Gulf Echo locator beacon to the tower for landing clearance. Adventure and Situation Files This adventure requires the files B3CHUNL.ADV and B3OL25.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Flying an Adventure Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Boeing 737-400: Introduction VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS)


Executive Charter: Boeing 737-400
	Executive Charter: Boeing 737-400 On this flight, you're taking a group of business executives from San Jose, CA. to a conference—at Disneyland. You're in command of a Bluesky 737, a Boeing 737-400. The busy airspace in the San Francisco Bay Area requires aircraft departing San Jose to fly a tight, climbing right turn immediately after takeoff. Follow ATC instructions to the letter—or you'll find yourself grounded. Preflight Checks It's a good idea to review the topics about the Boeing 737-400 in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll find background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. In addition, you should be familiar with: • VOR navigation • ILS approaches You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Clearance Here is your ATC clearance for this flight. (If you need information about the airports, VORs, or NDBs along your route, check the Airport/Facility Directory on the World menu.) BLUESKY 737 is cleared to the John Wayne airport via San Jose 8 departure, J1 LAX, V16 PRADO, direct, maintain flight level 230. Squawk 4523. Specific Routing After takeoff on runway 30 left, fly runway heading to the SJC (San Jose) 1.8 DME fix then turn right to heading 110 within 4 nm of the SJC VOR. Climb and maintain 5,000 feet. After completing the turn, fly heading 110 until you intercept the Oakland (OAK) 121-degree radial outbound. At the OAK 30 DME fix expect a clearance to climb and maintain FL 230 (23,000 ft) with a restriction to cross MOONY intersection (47 DME from OAK on the 121 radial) above 12,000 ft. Proceed toward Avenal (AVE) VOR on a course of 124 degrees. After passing AVE, fly outbound on the AVE 129-degree radial. You may receive a revised clearance to proceed to the Filmore (FIM) VOR and fly the 148 radial for the Tandy Two arrival. Fly inbound to FIM on a course of 130 degrees. Cross FIM and fly outbound on the 148-degree radial. At 48 DME from FIM, expect vectors for the back course runway 1 left approach to the John Wayne airport (SNA). Turn left to heading 100 and descend to 6,000 ft. Expect a further left turn to heading 060 and an approach clearance. Report NEWPO to the tower for landing clearance. Adventure and Situation Files This adventure requires the files B3EXECC.ADV and B3SJC30L.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Flying an Adventure Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Boeing 737-400: Introduction VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS)


Executive Charter: Learjet 45
	Executive Charter: Learjet 45 On this flight, you're taking a group of business executives from San Jose, Calif. to a conference—at Disneyland. You're in command of a Learjet 45 on this flight to the John Wayne airport at Orange County (SNA). The busy airspace in the San Francisco Bay Area requires aircraft departing San Jose to fly a tight, climbing right turn immediately after takeoff. During your arrival at SNA, be prepared for strong Santa Ana winds. And always follow ATC instructions to the letter—or you'll find yourself grounded. Preflight Checks It's a good idea to review the topics about the Learjet 45 in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll find background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. In addition, you should be familiar with: • VOR navigation • ILS approaches You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Clearance Here is your ATC clearance for this flight. (If you need information about the airports, VORs, or NDBs along your route, check the Airport/Facility Directory on the World menu.) Learjet 45 is cleared to the John Wayne airport via San Jose 8 departure, J1 LAX, V16 PRADO, direct, maintain flight level 230. Squawk 4523. Specific Routing After takeoff on runway 30 left, fly runway heading to the SJC (San Jose) 1.8 DME fix then turn right to heading 110 within 4 nm of the SJC VOR. Climb and maintain 5,000 feet. After completing the turn, fly heading 110 until you intercept the Oakland (OAK) 121-degree radial outbound. At the OAK 30 DME fix expect a clearance to climb and maintain FL 230 (23,000 ft) with a restriction to cross MOONY intersection (47 DME from OAK on the 121 radial) above 12,000 ft. Proceed toward Avenal (AVE) VOR on a course of 124 degrees. After passing AVE, fly outbound on the AVE 129-degree radial. You may receive a revised clearance to proceed to the Filmore (FIM) VOR and fly the 148-radial for the Tandy Two arrival. Fly inbound to FIM on a course of 130 degrees. Cross FIM and fly outbound on the 148-degree radial. At 48 DME from FIM, expect vectors for the back course runway 1 left approach to the John Wayne airport (SNA). Turn left to heading 100 and descend to 6,000 ft. Expect a further left turn to heading 060 and an approach clearance. Report NEWPO to the tower for landing clearance. Adventure and Situation Files This adventure requires the files LJEXECC.ADV and LJSJC30L.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Flying an Adventure Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Learjet 45: Introduction VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS)


Medical Emergency: Learjet 45
	Medical Emergency: Learjet 45 This adventure starts at Boeing Field (BFI) in Seattle. Your mission is to fly vital medical supplies to San Francisco (SFO) to connect with flights that will take them to Christmas Island. Your aircraft is a Learjet 45 Lima Juliett. It's critical that you get the supplies to SFO on time. If you miss the connection, the supplies will sit for two weeks waiting for the next available flight. So be prepared for a few surprises as you make your way south toward California. Preflight Checks It's a good idea to review the topics about the Learjet 45 in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll find background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. In addition, you should be familiar with: • VOR navigation • ILS approaches You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Clearance Here is your ATC clearance for this flight. (If you need information about the airports, VORs, or NDBs along your route, check the Airport/Facility Directory on the World menu.) Learjet 45 Lima Juliett is cleared to the San Francisco airport via direct SEA VOR, Jet 1 OAK VOR, direct, maintain flight level 350. Squawk 3635. Specific Routing After takeoff from runway 31 left, fly runway heading until reaching 500 ft then turn right heading 030. Climb and maintain 5,000 ft. Expect a clearance direct to the Seattle (SEA) VOR, and to climb and maintain FL 350 (35,000 ft). Cross SEA above 8,000. Fly inbound to SEA on a course of 200 degrees. At SEA, intercept the 165-degree radial outbound. Continue on a course of 165 to the Battle Ground (BTG) VOR. At BTG, fly outbound on the BTG 163-degree radial. Your next checkpoint is the Rogue Valley (OED) VOR at Medford, Ore. About halfway between BTG and OED, start tracking the OED VOR and fly inbound on the 345-radial (inbound course 165). As you pass OED, intercept and fly outbound on the 149 radial toward Red Bluff, Calif. (RBL). The inbound course to RBL is 150 degrees. At RBL, intercept and fly outbound on the 162-radial toward Oakland (OAK). At 70 DME north of OAK, expect a descent clearance to 8,000 ft with a restriction to cross OAK below 10,000 ft. As you pass OAK, intercept and track the 219-degree radial outbound for vectors to the runway 28 right ILS. Expect a vector to heading 090 and a descent clearance to 5,000 ft. Slow to 200 knots. Expect a further vector to heading 235 and a descent to 1,800 ft, where you'll be cleared for runway 28 right ILS approach. Report BRIJJ to the tower and expect clearance to land. Adventure and Situation Files This adventure requires the files LJMEDEM.ADV and LJBFI31L.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Flying an Adventure Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Learjet 45: Introduction VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS)


Thanksgiving on Avalon: Cessna Skylane 182S
	Thanksgiving on Avalon: Cessna Skylane 182S It's the start of the holiday season in southern California, and you're in charge of getting the family over the hills, across the strait, and to grandmother's house for Thanksgiving dinner on Catalina Island. This should be a pleasant VFR flight in your shiny new Cessna Skylane 182S, but remember that winter storms may bring high winds. Preflight Checks It's a good idea to review the topics about the Cessna Skylane in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll find background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. In addition, you should be familiar with the basics of VOR navigation. You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Clearance Here is your ATC clearance for this flight. (If you need information about the airports, VORs, or NDBs along your route, check the Airport/Facility Directory on the World menu.) Cessna 9110 Echo, after takeoff on runway 21 at Santa Monica, fly runway heading to 2,000 ft then turn left to heading 160. Intercept the Santa Catalina VOR 340-degree radial to Avalon (inbound course 160). Maintain 3,500 ft and squawk 1217. Specific Routing At 7 DME north of SXC descend to pattern altitude (2,600 ft MSL), which is 1,000 ft AGL. Catalina reports runway 4 in use and calm winds, so plan to fly a left-hand traffic pattern. Adventure and Situation Files This adventure requires the files CFTOSXC.ADV and CFSMO21.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Flying an Adventure Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook VOR Navigation


London Shopping Trip: Cessna Skylane RG
	London Shopping Trip: Cessna Skylane RG Here's an adventure that tests your flying skills in the crowded skies over Europe. Start at Le Havre, Octeville for a pleasant trip across the English Channel to London City airport. Preflight Checks It's a good idea to review the topics about the Cessna Skylane in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll find background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. In addition, you should be familiar with the basics of VOR navigation. You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Clearance Here is your ATC clearance for this flight. (If you need information about the airports, VORs, or NDBs along your route, check the Airport/Facility Directory on the World menu.) Cessna 2001 Zulu, after takeoff fly the Deauville 350 radial to DRAKE, the Seaford 196 radial to Seaford, the Seaford 003 radial to Mayfield and Mayfield 001 radial to London City. Maintain flight level 60 and squawk 1333. Specific Routing After takeoff from runway 05, fly runway heading to intercept the Deauville (DVL) 350 radial to DRAKE intersection (formed by the DVL 350-degree radial and the Seaford [SFD] 196-degree radial). At DRAKE, call London Control. Expect a descent to FL 50 (5,000 ft). Intercept and fly inbound on the SFD 196 radial (inbound course 016). At SFD, intercept and fly outbound on the 003 radial to Mayfield (MAY). At Mayfield, intercept and fly outbound on the 001 radial to London City. At the MAY 18 DME fix contact City Tower and descend to 1,500 ft. Expect to enter a left-hand circuit on the base leg to land on runway 28. Adventure and Situation Files This adventure requires the files CROCTLCY.ADV and CROCT05.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Flying an Adventure Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook VOR Navigation


Tokyo Ferry Flight: Boeing 737-400
	Tokyo Ferry Flight: Boeing 737-400 The previous crew landed the Boeing 737-400 at the wrong airport. While they're filling out paperwork and explaining their mistake to the chief pilot, you have to fly the plane from Narita to Haneda for the next outbound flight. And that's not as easy as it sounds. You'll have to be on your toes for this short, intense hop between airports. Your call sign is BLUESKY 737. Preflight Checks It's a good idea to review the topics about the Boeing 737-400 in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll find background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. In addition, you should be familiar with: • VOR navigation • ILS approaches You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Clearance Here is your ATC clearance for this flight. (If you need information about the airports, VORs, or NDBs along your route, check the Airport/Facility Directory on the World menu.) BLUESKY 737, cleared to the Haneda airport via Chiba Reversal Four departure, direct Kisarazu, direct, maintain 7,000 ft. Squawk 1514. Specific Routing After takeoff from runway 34, fly the Narita (NRE) VOR 337-degree radial to the 7 DME fix. Make sure you cross the 7 DME fix above 2,800 ft. Within 10 DME, turn right to intercept the NRE 014 radial inbound (inbound course 194). Climb and maintain 7,000 ft. AT NRE, intercept and track outbound on the 337 radial.direct to Kisarazu(KZE) VOR. At 25 DME before KZE, expect a right turn to heading 310 and a descent clearance to 3,000 ft. This is a vector for the runway 22 ILS at Haneda. At 18 nm from Haneda Airport, expect a left turn to heading 260 and a clearance for the runway 22 ILS approach. Report ARAKAWA (the 6 DME fix from the Haneda [HME] VOR) to the tower and expect landing clearance. Adventure and Situation Files This adventure requires the files B3TYOFRY.ADV and B3NRE34.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Flying an Adventure Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Boeing 737-400: Introduction VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS)


Seafood Dinner: Learjet 45
	Seafood Dinner: Learjet 45 The assistant undersecretary to the deputy director of a bureau in a large government agency is on a fact-finding mission. You don't need to know the facts he's looking for, only that he's in Washington, D.C., the juicy details are at an expensive seafood restaurant in Boston, and that you've got to get him there before the filets get cold. That's a job for the Learjet 45. Preflight Checks It's a good idea to review the topics about the Learjet 45 in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll find background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. In addition, you should be familiar with: • VOR navigation • ILS approaches You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Clearance Here is your ATC clearance for this flight. (If you need information about the airports, VORs, or NDBs along your route, check the Airport/Facility Directory on the World menu.) Learjet 45 Lima Juliett is cleared to the Boston Logan airport via direct Nottingham VOR, J42 Boston VOR, direct, maintain flight level 330 and squawk 3235. Specific Routing After takeoff from runway 18, fly runway heading and set reduced power for noise abatement to the Washington National (DCA) 10 DME. Expect vectors from ATC to turn left to heading 120 to intercept the 270-degree radial inbound to Nottingham (OTT) VOR (inbound course 090). Cross OTT above 10,000 ft. At OTT, intercept and track outbound on the 071-degree radial. Climb to FL 330 (33,000 ft). You're now on J42. At GRACO intersection, 29 DME fix east of OTT, expect a turn to track inbound to Woodstown (OOD) VOR on the 235 radial (inbound course 055). At OOD, intercept and track the 057 radial outbound toward Robbinsville (RBV). At RBV, intercept and track outbound on the 049-degree radial toward La Guardia (LGA). At LGA, intercept and track the 054 radial outbound to the 37 DME fix. Intercept and track inbound on the Hartford (HFD) 229-degree radial (inbound course 069). At HFD, intercept and track the 072 radial outbound toward Putnam (PUT). At PUT, intercept and track the 071 radial outbound toward Boston (BOS). Expect a descent clearance to cross the BOS VOR below 12,000 ft to maintain 9,000 ft. Track inbound to Boston on the 234-degree radial (inbound course 074). Expect to contact Boston approach control at the BOS VOR. ATC will issue vectors for the runway 22 left ILS approach at Boston Logan. Descend to 6,000 ft and fly heading 070. At 11 DME, from BOS, expect to slow to 200 knots and to turn left to heading 260. Descend to 3,000 ft. As you're turning through 340 degrees, expect an approach clearance. Contact the tower at the LYNDY outer marker for landing clearance. Adventure and Situation Files This adventure requires the files LJSEAFUD.ADV and LJDCA18.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Flying an Adventure Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Learjet 45: Introduction VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS)


San Juan Island Tour: Cessna Skylane 182S
	San Juan Island Tour: Cessna Skylane 182S It's hard to beat the scenery in the Pacific Northwest—when you can see it. So when a sunny day comes along, it's time to fire up your new Cessna Skylane 182S and take a tour of the San Juan Islands northwest of Seattle. This adventure takes you from Boeing Field (BFI) to Port Angeles (CLM), an airport on the Olympic Peninsula along the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Preflight Checks It's a good idea to review the topics about the Cessna Skylane in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll find background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. In addition, you should be familiar with the basics of VOR navigation. You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Clearance Here is your ATC clearance for this flight. (If you need information about the airports, VORs, or NDBs along your route, check the Airport/Facility Directory on the World menu.) Cessna 9110 Echo, after takeoff from runway 31 left, fly runway heading to intercept the Seattle 307 radial to JAWBN intersection, then fly the Tatoosh 080 radial. Maintain 6,500 ft and squawk 1221. Specific Routing When you contact Seattle Departure control, expect a left turn to heading 290 to intercept the SEA 307 radial. Maintain 2,000 ft. At 17 DME from SEA, expect a clearance to climb to 6,500 ft and to contact Whidbey Approach. Expect a restriction to cross LOFAL intersection (29 DME from SEA) at 6,500 ft. At JAWBN intersection (43 DME from SEA), expect a left turn to heading 260 to intercept the Tatoosh (TOU) 080 radial outbound toward Port Angeles (CLM). Approaching CLM, descend and enter a left-hand traffic pattern to land on runway 8. The field elevation is 288 ft MSL. Adventure and Situation Files This adventure requires the files CFBFICLM.ADV and CFBFI31L.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Flying an Adventure Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook VOR Navigation


Checkerboard Approach: Boeing 737-400
	Checkerboard Approach: Boeing 737-400 You're captain of a Bluesky 737, a Boeing 737-400, on a routine flight from Hong Kong. But nothing's ever routine at Hong Kong, an airport with an infamous twisting "checkerboard approach" to a short runway. Preflight Checks It's a good idea to review the topics about the Boeing 737-400 in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll find background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. In addition, you should be familiar with: • VOR navigation • ILS approaches You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Clearance Here is your ATC clearance for this flight. (If you need information about the airports, VORs, or NDBs along your route, check the Airport/Facility Directory on the World menu.) BLUESKY 737 is cleared to the Cheung Chau VOR via direct WHISKEY intersection, direct. Maintain 6,000 ft and squawk 3337. Specific Routing After takeoff from runway 13, fly runway heading. Continue to the 23 DME fix from the Hong Kong ILS and then turn left to heading 330 to intercept the Cheung Chau (CH) 090-degree radial inbound to CH (inbound course 270). At CH, expect instructions to slow to 200 knots and maintain 6,000. Expect lower altitude in 5 miles. At 7 DME from CH, turn right heading 045 and descend to 4,500 ft. Expect a clearance to fly the IGS runway 13 approach. Report the Kilo Lima 9 DME fix to the tower for landing clearance. Adventure and Situation Files This adventure requires the files B3HKGIGS.ADV and B3HKG13I.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Flying an Adventure Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Boeing 737-400: Introduction VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS)


Austrian Ski Trip: Learjet 45
	Austrian Ski Trip: Learjet 45 The urge to schuss some slopes has hit hard. But you're in England, not exactly alpine country. No problem. Just head for London's Gatwick airport, where you park your personal Learjet 45 and take a short hop to Innsbruck, where the powder is excellent. Preflight Checks It's a good idea to review the topics about the Learjet 45 in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll find background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. In addition, you should be familiar with: • VOR navigation • ILS approaches You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Clearance Here is your ATC clearance for this flight. (If you need information about the airports, VORs, or NDBs along your route, check the Airport/Facility Directory on the World menu.) Learjet 45 Lima Juliett is cleared to the Innsbruck airport via direct Biggin, UG1 Koksy, UG109 Karlsruhe, UL607 Kempten, direct, maintain flight level 370. Squawk 4245. Specific Routing After takeoff from runway 8 right, fly runway heading. Intercept and track inbound on the Biggin (BIG) 040-degree radial. At BIG, intercept and track outbound on the 105 radial toward Dover (DVR). At DVR, intercept and track outbound on the 98-degree radial toward Koksy (KOK). At KOK, intercept and track outbound on the 120 radial toward Diekirch (DIK). At DIK, intercept and track outbound on the 120 radial toward Karlsruhe (KRH). At KRH, intercept and track outbound on the 130 radial toward Tango (TGO). At TGO, intercept and track outbound on the 141 radial toward Kempten (KPT). After KPT, expect vectors for the localizer DME east approach. Expect to land on runway 26. Adventure and Situation Files This adventure requires the files LJSKITRP.ADV and LJGE08R.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Flying an Adventure Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Learjet 45: Introduction VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS)


Hit the Slots: Learjet 45
	Hit the Slots: Learjet 45 This adventure takes you from the sandy beaches at Santa Monica (SMO) to the sandy streets of Las Vegas (LAS). High rollers travel in style, of course, so this is a job for the Learjet 45. Preflight Checks It's a good idea to review the topics about the Learjet 45 in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll find background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. In addition, you should be familiar with: • VOR navigation • ILS approaches You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Clearance Here is your ATC clearance for this flight. (If you need information about the airports, VORs, or NDBs along your route, check the Airport/Facility Directory on the World menu.) LearJet 45 Lima Juliett is cleared to the McCarran airport via direct Los Angeles VOR, J9 Las Vegas VOR, direct, maintain flight level 270 and squawk 4135. Specific Routing After takeoff from runway 21, fly runway heading to 7,000 ft and then turn left direct Los Angeles (LAX) VOR. You should track inbound on the 240-degree radial (inbound course 060). At LAX, intercept and track outbound on the 041 radial toward Dagget (DAG). Climb and maintain flight level 270 (27,000 ft). At DAG, intercept and track outbound on the 031-degree radial toward Las Vegas (LAS). At LAS VOR, expect a vector to fly heading 110 for the ILS runway 25 right at McCarran. Adventure and Situation Files This adventure requires the files LJSLOTS.ADV and LJSMO21.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Flying an Adventure Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Learjet 45: Introduction VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS)


Orlando Adventure: Cessna Skylane RG
	Orlando Adventure: Cessna Skylane RG The kids have finally worn you down, and it's time to pack them into the Cessna Skylane RG for a flight to Orlando, Fla. See if you can keep them from asking, "Are we there yet?" every five minutes on this flight from Charlotte, N.C. Preflight Checks It's a good idea to review the topics about the Cessna Skylane in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll find background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. In addition, you should be familiar with: • VOR navigation • ILS approaches You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Clearance Here is your ATC clearance for this flight. (If you need information about the airports, VORs, or NDBs along your route, check the Airport/Facility Directory on the World menu.) Cessna 2001 Zulu is cleared to Orlando Executive Airport via direct Charlotte, V37 Brunswick, V3 Ormond Beach, V51 OVIDO intersection, direct. Maintain 6,500 ft and squawk 3343. Specific Routing After takeoff from runway 23, turn left direct to the Charlotte (CLT) VOR, You will track inbound to Charlotte on the 001 radial (inbound course 181). Climb and maintain 6,500 ft. At CLT, intercept and track outbound on the 189-degree radial toward Columbia (CAE). At CAE, intercept and track outbound on the 195-degree radial toward Allendale (ALD). At ALD, intercept and track outbound on the 171-degree radial toward Savannah (SAV). At SAV, intercept and track outbound on the 196-degree radial toward Brunswick (SSI). At SSI, intercept and track outbound on the 175-degree radial toward Ormond Beach (OMN). At OMN, intercept and track outbound on the 183-degree radial toward OVIDO intersection (OMN 191 radial, 37 DME). At OVIDO, expect radar vectors for the Orlando localizer back course approach to runway 25. Adventure and Situation Files This adventure requires the files CRCLTORL.ADV and CRCLT23.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Flying an Adventure Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS)


Night Transcontinental: Boeing 737-400
	Night Transcontinental: Boeing 737-400 The airline's crew-scheduling computer crashed last week, and you suddenly find yourself assigned to fly a Bluesky 737, on the red-eye from Los Angeles (LAX) to New York's JFK airport. Make sure there's plenty of coffee on board before you take off. Preflight Checks It's a good idea to review the topics about the Boeing 737-400 in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll find background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. In addition, you should be familiar with: • VOR navigation • ILS approaches You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Clearance Here is your ATC clearance for this flight. (If you need information about the airports, VORs, or NDBs along your route, check the Airport/Facility Directory on the World menu.) BLUESKY 737 is cleared to JFK via direct Paradise, J64 Robbinsville, direct, maintain flight level 330. Squawk 5356. Specific Routing After takeoff from runway 25 right, fly runway heading and climb to 3,000 ft. Then turn left to heading 140 to intercept the Paradise (PDZ) VOR 240 radial inbound (inbound course 060) and fly direct to PDZ. Make sure you cross PDZ above FL 180 (18,000 ft). At PDZ, intercept and track outbound on the 030-degree radial toward Hector (HEC). At HEC, intercept and track outbound on the 055-degree radial toward Peach Springs (PGS). At PGS, intercept and track outbound on the 059-degree radial toward Tuba City (TBC). At TBC, intercept and track outbound on the 060-degree radial toward Farmington (FMN). At FMN intercept and track outbound on the 047-degree radial toward Pueblo (PUB). Expect a climb clearance to flight level 370 (37,000 ft) with a restriction to cross PUB at FL 370. At PUB, intercept and track outbound on the 059-degree radial toward Hill City (HLC). At HLC, intercept and track outbound on the 064-degree radial toward Pawnee City (PWE). At PWE, intercept and track outbound on the 071-degree radial toward Lamoni (LMN). At LMN, intercept and track outbound on the 072-degree radial toward Bradford (BDF). At BDF, intercept and track outbound on the 089-degree radial toward Fort Wayne (FWA). At FWA, intercept and track outbound on the 091-degree radial toward Ellwood City (EWC) At EWC, intercept and track outbound on the 102-degree radial toward Ravine (RAV). At RAV, intercept and track outbound on the 102-degree radial toward Robbinsville (RBV). Expect a descent clearance of 8,000 ft with a restriction to cross RBV below 12,000 ft. At RBV, intercept and track outbound on the 076-degree radial toward Colts Neck (COL). At COL, expect radar vectors to the ILS runway 4 right approach at JFK. Fly heading 080 and maintain 8,000 ft. Intercept the localizer and proceed inbound. At the 22 DME fix, expect a descent clearance to 3,000 ft. At NARRO intersection, the 15.5 DME fix on the ILS, expect approach clearance. Contact the tower at EBBE for landing clearance. Adventure and Situation Files This adventure requires the files B3RED_I.ADV and BLAX25RN.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Flying an Adventure Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Boeing 737-400: Introduction VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS)


ILS at Van Nuys, CA: Cessna Skylane RG
	ILS at Van Nuys, CA: Cessna Skylane RG On this adventure you'll fly a long ILS approach in the Cessna Skylane RG into Van Nuys, Calif. (VNY), one of the busiest general aviation airports in the world. Before attempting this flight, you should be familiar with basic flight controls and understand the fundamentals of VOR navigation and flying an instrument landing system (ILS) approach. You'll also find it helpful to review the pilot's operating handbook for the Cessna Skylane RG in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. You'll also want to have the chart of the Los Angeles area handy. It's in the back of the Pilot's Handbook. Preflight Checks The lesson automatically configures your communication and navigation radios for the first part of the flight, but you should always make sure the aircraft is properly configured for the flight. • The VNY ILS (111.3) is tuned on the number 1 navigation radio and displayed on the VOR 1 indicator. • The VNY VOR/DME (113.1), located on the airport, is tuned on the number 2 navigation radio and displayed on the VOR 2 indicator to show you distance from the airport. • Auto-coordination is turned on to make flying a little easier. It's automatically turned off after landing so you can steer more easily on the ground. The Clearance This adventure starts in the air at 6,000 ft MSL 17 nm (31.5 km) northwest of the Van Nuys Airport. ATC will issue instructions to intercept the runway 16R ILS approximately 3 nm outside the outer marker. This approach has a long, 7.7 nm final segment with plenty of time to get stabilized. Your initial clearance is to fly heading 070 and maintain 6,000 ft for vectors to the ILS. Adventure and Situation Files This adventure requires the files C182_ILS.ADV and CRGVNY60.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Flying an Adventure Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS)


Introductory Flight: Cessna Skylane 182S
	Introductory Flight: Cessna Skylane 182S This introductory flight in the fixed-gear Cessna Skylane 182S gives you a feel for the Cessna and shows you the basics of taking off, climbing, cruising, descending, and landing. You'll take off to the northeast from the Cleveland Lakefront airport, turn south, and then head west to land on runway 28 at Hopkins. Your instructor will communicate with air traffic controllers, keep you on course, and help you understand what to do next. You can also try an introductory flight in the Cessna Skylane RG, a Cessna 182 with retractable landing gear. That lesson is titled "Introductory Flight: Cessna Skylane RG." Preflight Checks If you're unfamiliar with the flight controls and the instruments on the Cessna control panel, it's a good idea to review the topics in the Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. The Aircraft Handbooks section includes background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. To get information about any instrument or control on the instrument, point to the item you're interested in. After a moment a label appears. If you want more information, click the right mouse button, and click again when What's This? appears. You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Lesson and Situation Files This lesson requires the files CFDINTRO.LES and CFBKL6R.STN. Related Topics Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Choosing a Lesson


Introductory Flight: Cessna Skylane RG at SFO
	Introductory Flight: Cessna Skylane RG at SFO This introductory flight in the Cessna Skylane RG gives you a feel for the Cessna and shows you the basics of taking off, climbing, cruising, descending, and landing. You'll take off from San Francisco International Airport for a short daytime flight to Oakland International Airport. Your instructor will communicate with air traffic controllers, keep you on course, and help you understand what to do next. You can also try an introductory flight in the Cessna Skylane 182S, the latest model Cessna 182. That lesson is titled "Introductory Flight: Cessna Skylane 182S." Preflight Checks If you're unfamiliar with the flight controls and the instruments on the Cessna control panel, it's a good idea to review the topics in the Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. The Aircraft Handbooks section includes background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. To get information about any instrument or control on the instrument, point to the item you're interested in. After a moment a label appears. If you want more information, click the right mouse button, and click again when What's This? appears. You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Lesson and Situation Files This lesson requires the files CRDINTRO.LES and CRSFO28R.STN. Related Topics Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Choosing a Lesson


Introductory Flight: Cessna Skylane RG at Meigs Field
	Introductory Flight: Cessna Skylane RG at Meigs Field This introductory flight in the Cessna Skylane RG gives you a feel for the Cessna and shows you the basics of taking off, flying a standard traffic pattern, and landing. You'll take off and land at Meigs Field in Chicago. Your instructor will communicate with air traffic controllers, keep you on course, and help you understand what to do next. You can also try an introductory flight in the Cessna Skylane 182S, the latest model Cessna 182. That lesson is titled "Introductory Flight: Cessna Skylane 182S." Preflight Checks If you're unfamiliar with the flight controls and the instruments on the Cessna control panel, it's a good idea to review the topics in the Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. The Aircraft Handbooks section includes background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. To get information about any instrument or control on the instrument, point to the item you're interested in. After a moment a label appears. If you want more information, click the right mouse button, and click again when What's This? appears. You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Lesson and Situation Files This lesson requires the files C01-INTR.LES and CGX18ONG.STN. Related Topics Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Choosing a Lesson The Traffic Pattern


Introductory Flight: Boeing 737-400
	Introductory Flight: Boeing 737-400 This introductory flight in the Boeing 737-400 gives you a feel for the Boeing 737-400 and shows you the basics of taking off, climbing, cruising, descending, and landing. You'll take off from runway 28R at San Francisco International Airport (SFO), fly west for a few miles, turn north and then head east to land at Oakland (OAK) on runway 11. Your instructor will communicate with air traffic controllers, keep you on course, and help you understand what to do next. Preflight Checks If you're unfamiliar with the flight controls and the instruments on the Boeing 737-400 control panel, it's a good idea to review the topics in the Boeing 737-400 Operating Handbook in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. The Aircraft Handbooks section includes background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. To get information about any instrument or control on the instrument, point to the item you're interested in. After a moment a label appears. If you want more information, click the right mouse button, and click again when What's This? appears. You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Lesson and Situation Files This lesson requires the files B3INTRO.LES and B3SFO28R.STN. Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Introduction Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Choosing a Lesson


Introductory Flight: Learjet 45
	Introductory Flight: Learjet 45 This introductory flight in the Learjet 45 gives you a feel for the Boeing Learjet 45 and shows you the basics of taking off, climbing, cruising, descending, and landing. You'll take off from runway 28R at San Francisco International Airport (SFO), fly west for a few miles, turn north and then head east to land at Oakland (OAK) on runway 11. Your instructor will communicate with air traffic controllers, keep you on course, and help you understand what to do next. Preflight Checks If you're unfamiliar with the flight controls and the instruments on the Learjet 45 control panel, it's a good idea to review the topics in the Learjet 45 Operating Handbook in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. The Aircraft Handbooks section includes background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. To get information about any instrument or control on the instrument, point to the item you're interested in. After a moment a label appears. If you want more information, click the right mouse button and click again when What's This? appears. You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Lesson and Situation Files This lesson requires the files LJINTRO.LES and LJSFO28R.STN. Related Topics Learjet 45: Introduction Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Choosing a Lesson


Normal Landing: Cessna Skylane RG
	Normal Landing: Cessna Skylane RG This lesson introduces you to normal landings in the Cessna Skylane RG. The auto-coordination feature is turned on for this lesson. This lesson takes place at Meigs Field in Chicago. Before flying this lesson, you may want to review the topics in the Aerodynamics and Aircraft Controls sections of the Ground School in Help. You'll also find it helpful to review the pilot's operating handbook for the Cessna Skylane in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. The Flight This lesson shows you how to make good, smooth landings. Keep the following points in mind: • Fly the traffic pattern precisely and consistently. If you wander all over the sky near the airport, your landings will be sloppy, too. • Use smooth, small control movements and power adjustments as you fly. Abrupt, large movements lead to inconsistent, rough landings. Lesson and Situation Files This lesson requires the files C02_NLND.LES and CGXE_0W.STN. Related Topics Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Choosing a Lesson Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook The Axes of Flight Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


Night Landing: Cessna Skylane RG
	Night Landing: Cessna Skylane 182RG This lesson introduces you to the basics of night landings. It begins with the Cessna Skylane 182RG about 4 nm from the airport on a straight-in approach to runway 25 at the Ohio University Airport in Athens/Albany, Ohio. Before flying this lesson, you may want to review the topics about airport lighting and the Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI). Your instructor will communicate with air traffic controllers, keep you on course, and help you understand what to do next. You can also try an introductory flight in the new Cessna 182S, the latest fixed-gear version of the Skylane. That lesson is titled "Introductory Flight: Cessna Skylane 182S." Preflight Checks If you're unfamiliar with the flight controls and the instruments on the Cessna control panel, you should review the topics in the Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. The Aircraft Handbook section includes background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. To get information about instruments and controls in the cockpit, point to the item you're interested in. After a moment a label appears. If you want more information, click the right mouse button, and click again when What's This? appears. You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Airport Information Here's some basic information to help you land at Ohio University Airport. The runway heading is 246 degrees, and airport elevation is 766 ft MSL. To help you fly directly toward the runway, your instructor has set the localizer for runway 25 in the number 1 navigation radio and VOR display. If you keep the vertical needle centered, you'll stay aligned with the runway. For more information about using a localizer, see the topic "Instrument Landing System (ILS)" in the Navigation section of Help. Lesson and Situation Files This lesson requires the files CRNLND.LES and CRUNI25.STN. Related Topics Airport Lighting VASI and PAPI Systems Instrument Landing System (ILS) Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook Introductory Flight: Cessna Skylane 182S Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Choosing a Lesson


15-Knot Crosswind Landing: Cessna Skylane RG
	15-Knot Crosswind Landing: Cessna Skylane RG This lesson introduces you to the crosswind landings in the Cessna Skylane RG. This a challenging lesson that requires you to have rudder pedals or a joystick like the Microsoft SideWinder that supports separate aileron and rudder control. The auto-coordination feature is turned off for this lesson. Before flying this lesson, you may want to review the topics in the Aerodynamics and Aircraft Controls sections of the Ground School in Help. You'll also find it helpful to review the pilot's operating handbook for the Cessna Skylane in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. The Flight This lesson shows you how to compensate for winds that blow across the runway. Keep the following points in mind: • You must point or "crab" the airplane slightly into the wind during the final approach to keep the wind from pushing you sideways. The goal is to keep your airplane exactly on the runway centerline. • If you find yourself drifting away from the runway, you need to adjust the crab angle. Fly the plane back toward the centerline. If you're drifting downwind, turn the airplane more into the wind. • At about 50 ft above the runway, you should use the ailerons to lower the upwind wing into the wind and apply opposite rudder pressure to straighten the nose so the airplane is headed straight down the runway centerline. This tricky maneuver, called a "slip," takes practice. Related Topics Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Choosing a Lesson Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook The Axes of Flight Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


Climbs, Turns, and Descents: Cessna Skylane RG
	Climbs, Turns, and Descents: Cessna Skylane RG This lesson introduces you to the basic flying characteristics of the Cessna Skylane RG. It's a good place to start if you're new to flying. It's also a good opportunity to see the sights around Tokyo, Japan. Before flying this lesson, you may want to review the topics in the Aerodynamics and Aircraft Controls sections of the Ground School in Help. You'll also find it helpful to review the pilot's operating handbook for the Cessna Skylane in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. The Flight This lesson emphasizes basic flying skills, including: • Reaching an assigned altitude and leveling off within 100 ft. • Rolling out within 10 degrees of an assigned heading. • Coordination of the ailerons and rudder, especially during climbing and descending turns. • Maintaining altitude during turns, especially when the bank angle is 30 degrees or more. Load factors build as the bank steepens, so be ready to add back pressure on the elevator during steep turns. Flying Tips Here are some tips to help you fly this lesson successfully: • Climbs, turns, and descents can be done at any power setting. For this lesson cruise power setting should be around 2200 RPM with the landing gear and flaps retracted. In this configuration, the airplane should fly level at about 100 knots indicated airspeed. • When leveling off after a climb, leave the power at full momentarily to let airspeed increase, then adjust the throttle to cruise power. • When climbing more than 100 ft (30.5 m) apply full power. • When descending more than 100 ft (30.5 m) reduce power slightly. • Remember to use the trim control to relieve control pressures as airspeed and power settings change. Related Topics Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Choosing a Lesson Cessna Skylane RG Operating Handbook The Axes of Flight Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Piston Engine Controls


Maneuvering at Minimum Controllable Airspeed: Cessna Skylane RG
	Maneuvering at Minimum Controllable Airspeed: Cessna Skylane RG This lesson introduces you to the flight characteristics of the Cessna Skylane RG at very low airspeeds. Understanding and practicing this task will help you make better landings and help you avoid stalls. This lesson takes place near Bremerton, Wash. The auto-coordination feature is turned on for this lesson. Before flying this lesson, you may want to review the topics in the Aerodynamics and Aircraft Controls sections of the Ground School in Help. You'll also find it helpful to review the pilot's operating handbook for the Cessna Skylane RG in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. The Flight Keep the following points in mind as you fly this lesson: • For this lesson, minimum controllable airspeed (MCA) is approximately 50 knots, about 1.2 times the Cessna Skylane RG's clean stalling speed (the stall speed with the landing gear and flaps retracted). • Use power to control altitude. If you start descending during flight at MCA, smoothly and positively add power to correct the situation immediately. Raising the nose in this situation won't help you climb. • Use the elevator to adjust the aircraft's pitch attitude to maintain airspeed. Raise the nose slightly to decrease airspeed; lower the nose slightly to increase airspeed. • Anticipate the need to add power during turns. Remember, during a turn, some of the airplane's lift is deflected sideways, so you must add power to maintain altitude during turns at MCA. Related Topics Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Choosing a Lesson Cessna Skylane RG Operating Handbook The Axes of Flight Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


Stalls: Cessna Skylane RG
	Stalls: Cessna Skylane RG This lesson introduces you to the flight characteristics of the Cessna Skylane RG during stalls. This lesson takes place near Concord, Calif. Before flying this lesson, you may want to review the topics in the Aerodynamics and Aircraft Controls sections of the Ground School in Help. You'll also find it helpful to review the pilot's operating handbook for the Cessna Skylane RG in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. Practicing Stalls To practice stalls in the Cessna Skylane RG, use the following basic procedure. First, reduce power to slow down and set the flaps and landing gear as appropriate. As you slow down, hold the nose up with the elevator. Keep adding back pressure as the airplane decelerates. When the stall occurs, relax the back pressure—don't shove the nose down. The airplane will recover quickly as you add power. You want to keep altitude loss to a minimum, so don't dive to recover. Re-establish a climb as soon as airspeed increases to normal climb speed (70–80 knots). Make sure that you don't jerk the nose back up, however. An abrupt pull on the stick can induce a secondary stall. The Flight This lesson will introduce you to different types of stalls. Keep the following points in mind as you fly this lesson: • A stall can occur in any configuration, with the airplane in any attitude, and at any airspeed. Regardless of the aircraft's attitude or airspeed, a stall occurs only when the angle of attack exceeds the wing's critical angle of attack. • To recover from a stall, you must reduce the angle of attack to restore lift, add full power to prevent excessive loss of altitude, and use smooth control inputs to keep the wings level. Related Topics Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Choosing a Lesson Cessna Skylane RG Operating Handbook The Axes of Flight Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


Normal Takeoff: Bell 206B JetRanger III
	Normal Takeoff: Bell 206B JetRanger III This lesson in the Bell 206B JetRanger III gives you a feel for the basics of taking off and hovering. You'll take off from Meigs Field in Chicago. After hovering for a while, you’ll climb to 300 ft AGL. Your instructor will help you understand what to do next. Preflight Checks If you're unfamiliar with the flight controls and the instruments on the Bell 206B JetRanger III control panel, it's a good idea to review the topics about the helicopter in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. The Aircraft Handbooks section includes background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. You’ll also want to review the topics about flying the helicopter in the Ground School section of Help. To get information about any instrument or control on the instrument, point to the item you're interested in. After a moment a label appears. If you want more information, click the right mouse button, and click again when What's This? appears. You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Lesson and Situation Files This lesson requires the files BJTINTRO.LES and BJCGXHT.STN. Related Topics Basics of Helicopter Flight Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Choosing a Lesson The Traffic Pattern


Normal Landing: Bell 206B JetRanger III
	Normal Landing: Bell 206B JetRanger III This lesson in the Bell 206B JetRanger III gives you a feel for the basics of landing the helicopter. You'll start in the air at about 300 ft AGL. over Meigs Field in Chicago. You’ll descend and land with the guidance of your instructor. Preflight Checks If you're unfamiliar with the flight controls and the instruments on the Bell 206B JetRanger III control panel, it's a good idea to review the topics about the helicopter in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. The Aircraft Handbooks section includes background information about each aircraft in Flight Simulator, plus checklists and detailed information about how to fly such basic maneuvers as takeoffs, climbs, turns, descents, and landings. You’ll also want to review the topics about flying the helicopter in the Ground School section of Help. To get information about any instrument or control on the instrument, point to the item you're interested in. After a moment a label appears. If you want more information, click the right mouse button, and click again when What's This? appears. You may also want to review the special shortcut keys that you can use during a lesson or adventure. A summary of these keys is in the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures." Lesson and Situation Files This lesson requires the files BJLINTRO.LES and BJCGXL9.STN. Related Topics Basics of Helicopter Flight Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Choosing a Lesson The Traffic Pattern


VOR Intercept and Tracking: Cessna Skylane 182S
	VOR Intercept and Tracking: Cessna Skylane 182S This lesson introduces you to the basics of intercepting and tracking VOR radials. You must master this skill to earn a private pilot certificate, even if you intend to fly only under VFR. This lesson begins with your aircraft about 5 nm south of the VOR at Honolulu. Your task is to fly inbound on the 180-degree radial directly to the station. Remember that to fly inbound on 180-degree radial, you must fly a course of 360 degrees—due north. Turn Toward the Needle As you fly toward the station, you may need to make small course corrections to keep the vertical needle in the VOR 1 indicator centered. It may help to think of the course you're trying to follow as a lane on a highway. You want to keep your airplane centered in the lane, and you make small left and right corrections to keep from wandering off course. If the needle moves to the left, turn left about 10 degrees and hold that heading until the needle centers again, then turn back to the right about five degrees and wait a minute or two to see if you stay on course. If the needle moves to the right, turn right about 10 degrees and hold that heading until the needle centers again, then turn back to the left about five degrees and wait a minute or two to see if you stay on course. Continue making small course changes until you establish a heading that keeps the vertical needle centered. This process is called "bracketing." Don't Chase the Needle As you approach to the VOR station, the width of the course defined by each radial narrows, like a wedge of pizza. If you're even a little off course as you approach the VOR, the needle will swing abruptly left or right. Don't try to follow the needle by making large heading changes. Just stay on the heading that held your course when you were farther from the VOR. After you pass the station, the course defined by the radial starts widening again, and you can resume making small heading corrections to bracket the selected course. The Next Intercept After tracking inbound (north) on the 180 degree radial, you'll pass the Honolulu VOR and track outbound on the 360 degree radial for a while (you'll still be heading north). Next, you'll turn to heading 315 to fly northwest of the station and get in position to intercept and track inbound (east) on the 270 degree radial. You'll turn to heading 315, then to heading 180 as you prepare to intercept the radial and head back toward Honolulu. After you've tracked inbound for a few minutes, your instructor will end the lesson, and you can sightsee or head toward the airport of your choice for a normal landing. Preflight Checks Before flying this lesson, make sure you: • Understand how to use VOR navigation equipment in your aircraft. • Understand the basics of VOR navigation. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook VOR Navigation Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Choosing a Lesson


VOR Intercept and Tracking: Learjet 45
	VOR Intercept and Tracking: Learjet 45 This lesson introduces you to the basics of intercepting and tracking VOR radials. You must master this skill to earn a private pilot certificate, even if you intend to fly only under VFR. This lesson begins with your aircraft south of the VOR at Honolulu. Your task is to fly inbound on the 180-degree radial directly to the station. Remember that to fly inbound on 180-degree radial, you must fly a course of 360 degrees—due north. Turn Toward the Needle As you fly toward the station, you may need to make small course corrections to keep the vertical needle in the HSI centered. It may help to think of the course you're trying to follow as a lane on a highway. You want to keep your airplane centered in the lane, and you make small left and right corrections to keep from wandering off course. If the course needle moves to the left, turn left about 10 degrees and hold that heading until the needle centers again, then turn back to the right about five degrees and wait a minute or two to see if you stay on course. If the course needle moves to the right, turn right about 10 degrees and hold that heading until the needle centers again, then turn back to the left about five degrees and wait a minute or two to see if you stay on course. Continue making small course changes until you establish a heading that keeps the vertical needle centered. This process is called "bracketing." Don't Chase the Needle As you approach to the VOR station, the width of the course defined by each radial narrows, like a wedge of pizza. If you're even a little off course as you approach the VOR, the needle will swing abruptly left or right. Don't try to follow the needle by making large heading changes. Just stay on the heading that held your course when you were farther from the VOR. After you pass the station, the course defined by the radial starts widening again, and you can resume making small heading corrections to bracket the selected course. The Next Intercept After tracking inbound (north) on the 180 degree radial, you'll pass the Honolulu VOR and track outbound on the 360 degree radial for a while (you'll still be heading north). Next, you'll turn to heading 315 to fly northwest of the station and get in position to intercept and track inbound (east) on the 270 degree radial. You'll turn to heading 315, then to heading 180 as you prepare to intercept the radial and head back toward Honolulu. After you've tracked inbound for a few minutes, your instructor will end the lesson, and you can sightsee or head toward the airport of your choice for a normal landing. Preflight Checks Before flying this lesson, make sure you: • Understand how to use VOR navigation equipment in your aircraft. • Understand the basics of VOR navigation. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics VOR Navigation Using the HSI Learjet 45: Introduction Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Choosing a Lesson


VOR Intercept and Tracking: Boeing 737-400
	VOR Intercept and Tracking: Boeing 737-400 This lesson introduces you to the basics of intercepting and tracking VOR radials. You must master this skill to earn a private pilot certificate, even if you intend to fly only under VFR. This lesson begins with your aircraft south of the VOR at Honolulu. Your task is to fly inbound on the 180-degree radial directly to the station. Remember that to fly inbound on 180-degree radial, you must fly a course of 360 degrees—due north. Turn Toward the Needle As you fly toward the station, you may need to make small course corrections to keep the vertical needle in the HSI centered. It may help to think of the course you're trying to follow as a lane on a highway. You want to keep your airplane centered in the lane, and you make small left and right corrections to keep from wandering off course. If the course needle moves to the left, turn left about 10 degrees and hold that heading until the needle centers again, then turn back to the right about five degrees and wait a minute or two to see if you stay on course. If the course needle moves to the right, turn right about 10 degrees and hold that heading until the needle centers again, then turn back to the left about five degrees and wait a minute or two to see if you stay on course. Continue making small course changes until you establish a heading that keeps the vertical needle centered. This process is called "bracketing." Don't Chase the Needle As you approach to the VOR station, the width of the course defined by each radial narrows, like a wedge of pizza. If you're even a little off course as you approach the VOR, the needle will swing abruptly left or right. Don't try to follow the needle by making large heading changes. Just stay on the heading that held your course when you were farther from the VOR. After you pass the station, the course defined by the radial starts widening again, and you can resume making small heading corrections to bracket the selected course. The Next Intercept After tracking inbound (north) on the 180 degree radial, you'll pass the Honolulu VOR and track outbound on the 360 degree radial for a while (you'll still be heading north). Next, you'll turn to heading 315 to fly northwest of the station and get in position to intercept and track inbound (east) on the 270 degree radial. You'll turn to heading 315, then to heading 180 as you prepare to intercept the radial and head back toward Honolulu. After you've tracked inbound for a few minutes, your instructor will end the lesson, and you can sightsee or head toward the airport of your choice for a normal landing. Preflight Checks Before flying this lesson, make sure you: • Understand how to use VOR navigation equipment in your aircraft. • Understand the basics of VOR navigation. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics VOR Navigation Using the HSI Boeing 737-400: Introduction Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Choosing a Lesson


VOR Hold: Cessna Skylane 182S
	VOR Hold: Cessna Skylane 182S This lesson introduces you to basic holding procedures at a VOR. You must understand how to enter and fly holding patterns if you intend to fly under instrument flight rules (IFR). A Standard Holding Pattern A holding pattern looks like an oval racetrack anchored at a "holding fix." The fix is usually a VOR or NDB station, an intersection defined by two VOR radials or NDB bearings, or a DME distance from a VOR station along a specific radial. The two straight legs are called the inbound and outbound legs. To compensate for wind drift, you adjust the length of the outbound leg so that during each circuit you fly for one minute on the inbound leg. In a standard holding pattern, you make all turns to the right. While holding, you should make standard-rate turns. The Clearance This lesson begins with your aircraft south of the VOR at Richmond, VA. ATC wants you to fly to VOR and hold south of the station on the 180-degree radial with right turns. These instructions mean you must fly a course of 360 degrees (north) to track inbound on the 180 radial. Using the VOR Indicator Your instructor will tune the Richmond VOR and set the inbound course in the number 1 VOR indicator. Because you are going to hold on the 180 radial, you must fly inbound on that radial to get back to the VOR. Therefore, you should set the reciprocal of the holding radial in the VOR indicator. In this case, set the OBI to 360 degrees. Entering the Hold In this lesson, you can use a direct entry to begin flying the holding pattern. In other words, proceed north toward the holding fix, then turn right to heading 180 for the first outbound leg. After flying away from the VOR for one minute on the outbound heading of 180 degrees, make a right 180-degree turn. If you fly a standard-rate turn, you should intercept the 180-degree radial as you turn north. Timing the Legs Start the time on each outbound leg as you pass abeam the VOR station. You'll know that you're directly abeam the station when the TO/FROM indicator on the VOR display changes from a TO indication to FROM. Start the time for each inbound leg as soon as the wings roll level at the completion of the 180-degree turn to the inbound heading of 360. Remember that you want to pass the VOR after flying inbound for exactly one minute. If you arrive too soon, extend the next outbound leg by about 15 seconds. If you arrive too late, shorten the outbound leg by about 15 seconds. Preflight Checks Before flying this lesson, make sure you: • Understand how to use VOR navigation equipment in your aircraft. • Understand the basics of holding patterns and holding pattern entries. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook VOR Navigation Holding Patterns Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Choosing a Lesson


VOR Hold: Boeing 737-400
	VOR Hold: Boeing 737-400 This lesson introduces you to basic holding procedures at a VOR. You must understand how to enter and fly holding patterns if you intend to fly under instrument flight rules (IFR). A Standard Holding Pattern A holding pattern looks like an oval racetrack anchored at a "holding fix." The fix is usually a VOR or NDB station, an intersection defined by two VOR radials or NDB bearings, or a DME distance from a VOR station along a specific radial. The two straight legs are called the inbound and outbound legs. To compensate for wind drift, you adjust the length of the outbound leg so that during each circuit you fly for one minute on the inbound leg. In a standard holding pattern, you make all turns to the right. In the hold, don't bank more than 30 degrees. Power and Speed You should fly the holding pattern in this lesson at 200 knots. To hold this speed and maintain altitude, set thrust at about 60 percent of N1. Extend flaps to 15 degrees. In this configuration, you'll find that the Boeing 737-400 is in a slightly nose-up attitude. You can also use the IAS/Mach hold function on the autopilot to help you hold airspeed. The Clearance This lesson begins with your aircraft south of the VOR at Cincinnati, Ohio. ATC wants you to fly to VOR and hold south on the 180 radial at 4,000 ft. Using the HSI Your instructor will tune the VOR and set the inbound course in the HSI. Note that because you are going to hold on the 180 radial, you must fly inbound on that radial to get back to the VOR. Therefore, you should set the reciprocal of the holding radial—360 degrees—in the course window on the Boeing 737-400 autopilot. When you reach the VOR and the TO/FROM indicator changes, turn right to a heading of 180 and fly away from the station for one minute. Remember to start timing the outbound leg when you're abeam the VOR and the TO/FROM indicator changes to FROM. After flying away from the VOR for one minute on the outbound heading of 180 degrees, make a right 180-degree turn. You should intercept the 180 degree radial as you turn north. Timing the Legs Start the time on each outbound leg as you pass abeam the VOR station headed south. You'll know that you're directly abeam the station when the TO/FROM indicator on the VOR display changes from a TO indication to FROM. Start the time for each inbound leg as soon as the wings roll level at the completion of the 180-degree turn to the inbound heading of 360. Remember that you want to pass the VOR after flying inbound for exactly one minute. If you arrive too soon, extend the next outbound leg by about 15 seconds. If you arrive too late, shorten the outbound leg by about 15 seconds. Preflight Checks Before flying this lesson, make sure you: • Understand how to use VOR navigation equipment in your aircraft. • Understand the basics of holding patterns and holding pattern entries. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Boeing 737-400: Introduction VOR Navigation Using the HSI Holding Patterns Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Choosing a Lesson


VOR Approach with Procedure Turn: Cessna Skylane RG
	VOR Approach With Procedure Turn: Cessna Skylane RG This lesson begins with your aircraft at 4,000 ft flying west on the 080-degree radial of the Flying Cloud VOR near Minneapolis, Minn. It introduces you to the basics of flying a complete VOR approach, a basic skill required to earn an instrument rating. Preflight Checks Before flying this lesson, make sure you: • Understand how to use the VOR navigation equipment in your aircraft. • Understand the basics of VOR navigation. Basic Skills Like all tasks in instrument flying, a VOR approach is a combination of straight-and-level flight, climbs, turns, and descents. To fly a VOR approach well, you must master those basic skills first. You should also be proficient at intercepting and tracking VOR radials. Non-Precision Approach A VOR approach is a non-precision approach, meaning you do not have an electronic glide slope to help you fly a precise descent path to the runway. Instead, you track a VOR radial to stay aligned with the runway and monitor the elapsed time or distance flown to estimate when to descend to the minimum descent altitude and to determine the missed approach point. If you don't see the airport at the missed approach point, you must go around. You can find more information about VOR approaches in the topic "VOR Approaches" in the Ground School section of Help. The Procedure Turn The approach in this lesson requires a course reversal called a procedure turn. It's a lot less complicated than it might sound. For more information about flying a procedure turn, see the topic "Procedure Turns" in the Ground School section of Help. The VOR Runway 9 Approach You'll find an approach chart for this procedure in the back of the Pilot's Handbook. Lesson and Situation Files This lesson requires the files CRVORAPV.LES and CRE4FCM4.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics VOR Navigation VOR Approaches Procedure Turns Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Choosing a Lesson


ILS Approach with Procedure Turn: Cessna Skylane RG
	ILS Approach With Procedure Turn: Cessna Skylane RG Fly this lesson to practice flying a complete ILS approach, including a course reversal called a procedure turn. You'll fly away from the airport, reverse course, and then turn back to intercept the ILS and fly the approach. Preflight Checks Before flying this lesson, make sure you: • Understand the basics of the ILS approach system. • Understand how to use the VOR navigation equipment in your aircraft. Basic Skills Like all tasks in instrument flying, an ILS approach is a combination of straight-and-level flight, climbs, turns, and descents. To fly an ILS approach well, you must master those basic skills first. The Procedure Turn The approach in this lesson requires a course reversal called a procedure turn. It's a lot less complicated than it might sound. For more information about flying a procedure turn, see the topic "Procedure Turns" in the Ground School section of Help. The ILS Runway 6 at MacArthur Airport You'll find an approach chart for this procedure in the back of the Pilot's Handbook. Here's some basic information to keep in mind as you fly the procedure: ILS frequency 108.3 Inbound course 058 Altitude at final approach fix 1772 ft Distance from BREWT to runway 5.0 nm Decision height 294 ft Lesson and Situation Files This lesson requires the files CRFILSV.LES and CRW5CCC3. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Instrument Landing System (ILS) VOR Navigation Procedure Turns Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Choosing a Lesson


ILS Approach with Procedure Turn: Learjet 45
	ILS Approach With Procedure Turn: Learjet 45 Fly this lesson to practice flying a complete ILS approach, including a course reversal called a procedure turn. You'll fly away from the airport, reverse course, and then turn back to intercept the ILS and fly the approach. Preflight Checks Before flying this lesson, make sure you: • Understand the basics of the ILS approach system. • Understand how to use the HSI and other instruments on the Learjet 45 instrument panel. • Understand how to use the VOR navigation equipment in your aircraft. Basic Skills Like all tasks in instrument flying, an ILS approach is a combination of straight-and-level flight, climbs, turns, and descents. To fly an ILS approach well, you must master those basic skills first. The Procedure Turn The approach in this lesson requires a course reversal called a procedure turn. It's a lot less complicated than it might sound. For more information about flying a procedure turn, see the topic "Procedure Turns" in the Ground School section of Help. The ILS Runway 6 at MacArthur Airport You'll find an approach chart for this procedure in the back of the Pilot's Handbook. Here's some basic information to keep in mind as you fly the procedure: ILS frequency 108.3 Inbound course 058 Altitude at final approach fix 1772 ft Distance from BREWT to runway 5.0 nm Decision height 294 ft Lesson and Situation Files This lesson requires the files LJFILSV.LES and LJW3CCC3.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Instrument Landing System (ILS) VOR Navigation Procedure Turns Learjet 45: Introduction Horizontal Situation Indicator Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Choosing a Lesson


ILS Approach with Procedure Turn: Boeing 737-400
	ILS Approach With Procedure Turn: Boeing 737-400 Fly this lesson to practice flying a complete ILS approach, including a course reversal called a procedure turn. You'll fly away from the airport, reverse course, and then turn back to intercept the ILS and fly the approach. Preflight Checks Before flying this lesson, make sure you: • Understand the basics of the ILS approach system. • Understand how to use the HSI and other instruments on the Boeing 737-400 instrument panel. • Understand how to use the VOR navigation equipment in your aircraft. Basic Skills Like all tasks in instrument flying, an ILS approach is a combination of straight-and-level flight, climbs, turns, and descents. To fly an ILS approach well, you must master those basic skills first. The Procedure Turn The approach in this lesson requires a course reversal called a procedure turn. It's a lot less complicated than it might sound. For more information about flying a procedure turn, see the topic "Procedure Turns" in the Ground School section of Help. The ILS Runway 6 at MacArthur Airport You'll find an approach chart for this procedure in the back of the Pilot's Handbook. Here's some basic information to keep in mind as you fly the procedure: ILS frequency 108.3 Inbound course 058 Altitude at final approach fix 1772 ft Distance from BREWT to runway 5.0 nm Decision height 294 ft Lesson and Situation Files This lesson requires the files B3FILSV.LES and B3W3CCC3.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Instrument Landing System (ILS) VOR Navigation Procedure Turns Boeing 737-400: Introduction Horizontal Situation Indicator Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Choosing a Lesson


Straight-In ILS Approach: Cessna Skylane 182S
	Straight-in ILS Approach: Cessna Skylane 182S Fly this lesson to practice flying a basic ILS approach. Your aircraft is in position to intercept the ILS and fly the approach. You don't need to reverse course using a procedure turn. Preflight Checks Before flying this lesson, make sure you: • Understand the basics of the ILS approach system. • Understand how to use the VOR navigation equipment in your aircraft. Basic Skills Like all tasks in instrument flying, an ILS approach is a combination of straight-and-level flight, climbs, turns, and descents. To fly an ILS approach well, you must master those basic skills first. The ILS Runway 36 at Space Center Executive You'll find an approach chart for this procedure in the back of the Pilot's Handbook. Here's some basic information to keep in mind as you fly the procedure: ILS frequency 108.7 Inbound course 001 Altitude at BREWT final approach fix 2,100 ft Distance from BREWT to runway 6 nm Decision height 235 ft Lesson and Situation Files This lesson requires the files CRSIILSV.LES and CRN8MLB3.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Instrument Landing System (ILS) VOR Navigation Cessna Skylane Operating Handbook Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Choosing a Lesson


Straight-In ILS Approach: Boeing 737-400
	Straight-in ILS Approach: Boeing 737-400 Fly this lesson to practice flying a basic ILS approach. Your aircraft is in position to intercept the ILS and fly the approach. You don't need to reverse course using a procedure turn. Preflight Checks Before flying this lesson, make sure you: • Understand the basics of the ILS approach system. • Understand how to use the VOR navigation equipment in your aircraft. Basic Skills Like all tasks in instrument flying, an ILS approach is a combination of straight-and-level flight, climbs, turns, and descents. To fly an ILS approach well, you must master those basic skills first. The ILS Runway 36 at Space Center Executive You'll find an approach chart for this procedure in the back of the Pilot's Handbook. Here's some basic information to keep in mind as you fly the procedure: ILS frequency 108.7 Inbound course 001 Altitude at BREWT final approach fix 2,100 ft Distance from BREWT to runway 6 nm Decision height 235 ft Lesson and Situation Files This lesson requires the files B3SIILSV.LES and B3N2MLB4.STN. NOTE: If you wander too far off the flight path assigned by ATC, you can continue flying, but you'll no longer receive updated instructions—and when you finally do land, the FAA will want to talk to you. Related Topics Instrument Landing System (ILS) VOR Navigation Boeing 737-400: Introduction Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Preflight Briefings: Introduction Choosing a Lesson


Preflight Briefings: Introduction
	Preflight Briefings: Introduction This section of Help contains background topics to help you fly the lessons and adventures supplied with Flight Simulator 98. NOTE: If you chose the Minimum Install option during Setup, the lessons, challenges, and adventures are not copied to your hard disk and are not available. If you want to install these flights, run Setup again. You'll find a preflight briefing for each lesson and adventure. Among other information, each topic explains what you'll do during the flight, which airplane you'll be flying, and where you you'll take off and land. You'll also find links to other topics in Help that provide information about the aircraft you fly, basic aerodynamics, navigation, and other details to help you get the most of these flights. TIP: The lessons and adventures use special keys to restart or exit the lesson or adventure or to repeat the last ATC instruction. For more information, see the topic "Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures" later in this section of Help. More Information For more information about starting a lesson or adventure, see the topics "Choosing a Lesson" and "Flying an Adventure" under "Choosing a Ready-Made Flight" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. For more information about flying the airplanes in Flight Simulator, see the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. For background information about aircraft controls and instruments, navigation, airports, weather, and related topics, see the topics in the Ground School section of Help. For information about the airports and navigation aids in Flight Simulator, click Airport/Facility Directory on the World menu. Related Topics Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures Choosing a Lesson Flying an Adventure


Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures
	Special Keys for Lessons and Adventures You can use a set of special key combinations to stop, restart and control the type of messages you receive while flying the lessons and adventures supplied with Flight Simulator. Note that you should use lowercase letters in these key combinations. Action Key Restart the lesson or adventure CTRL+r Exit the lesson/adventure CTRL+u Repeat the last ATC message or instructor comment CTRL+m Related Topics Choosing a Lesson Flying an Adventure Preflight Briefings: Introduction


Aerobatics Course: Introduction
	Aerobatics Course: Introduction Welcome to the Flight Simulator aerobatics course, an introduction to basic aerobatic maneuvers. This part of the Pilot's Handbook includes series of background topics on each maneuver, plus topics to help you prepare to fly aerobatics in Flight Simulator. Your instructor for the aerobatics course is Patty Wagstaff, a three-time U.S. National Aerobatic Champion and world-class airshow pilot. Wagstaff demonstrates the maneuvers in her Extra 300S, the same airplane you can fly in Flight Simulator. The Maneuvers This aerobatic course covers four basic maneuvers: the loop, aileron roll, hammerhead, and Cuban Eight. You can also test your skill by trying the Immelmann, split-S, and spins. How the Course Works This section of the Pilot's Handbook includes background topics that explain each maneuver. Many background topics include videos in which Wagstaff demonstrates the correct way to fly each maneuver, so don't miss these opportunities to learn from a master. To see a video, click the first frame, which appears in the left column near the beginning of the topic. Before You Take Off You should master a few basic skills in Flight Simulator before taking off on your first aerobatic flight. For example, you should understand how to use a joystick and how to change the out-the-window view so you can stay oriented as you loop and roll. You'll find information about these skills in the topic "Flying Aerobatics in Flight Simulator," later in this aerobatics course. Related Topics Your Instructor: Patty Wagstaff Extra 300S: Introduction Flying Aerobatics in Flight Simulator Choosing a View or Direction


Your Instructor: Patty Wagstaff
	Your Instructor: Patty Wagstaff Patty Wagstaff (b. 1951) is one of the world's top aerobatic pilots and airshow performers. A three-time U.S. National Aerobatic Champion, Wagstaff was also the 1993 International Aerobatic Club Champion and was the top American medal winner at the World Aerobatic Championships in 1990, 1992, and 1993. She's been a member of the United States Aerobatic Team six times. Wagstaff holds a commercial pilot certificate with instrument, multiengine, seaplane, and helicopter ratings. In addition she holds a flight instructor certificate with multiengine and instrument ratings. Wagstaff is also an "ACE," an aerobatic competency examiner. An ACE is a pilot who recommends to the FAA that a pilot who meets a specific set of standards be allowed to fly low-level aerobatics at competitions and airshows. When she's not practicing for competitions or airshows, Wagstaff instructs pilots in warbirds (classic aircraft from the World War II era), teaches basic and advanced aerobatics, provides spin training, and performs as a stunt pilot for the movies and television. Her film and TV credits include "Drop Zone," "Forever Young," and "Lois & Clark." Wagstaff recently completed her autobiography, Fire and Air, A Life on the Edge, published by Chicago Review Press. Wagstaff's Extra 260, the airplane in which she won the 1991 and 1992 U.S. National Aerobatic Championships, is now in the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. Related Topics Aerobatics: Rules to Live By Extra 300S: Introduction The Loop The Aileron Roll The Hammerhead The Cuban Eight The Spin The Split-S The Immelmann


Aerobatics: Rules To Live By
	Aerobatics: Rules to Live By Aerobatics aren't inherently dangerous, provided you follow some basic rules and procedures. The Right Airplane First, make sure your airplane is up to the task. Aircraft are certified in several categories. Normal or utility aircraft aren't designed for aerobatics. Aircraft like the Extra 300S, which is certified in the acrobatic category, have special features and reinforced structures to withstand the stresses of aerobatic flight. Basic Rules You can't do aerobatics whenever and wherever you want. In the U.S., FAR 91.303 lays out the basic rules. For example, aerobatics are prohibited over congested areas, over groups of people, near airports, and inside certain types of controlled airspace. You must also remain at least 1,500 ft (460 m) above the ground and the visibility must be at least 3 mi (5 km). Airshows and aerobatic contests are conducted under the terms of special waivers issued by the FAA. Pilots who fly low-level aerobatics at those events must have special training to qualify for a low-level aerobatic waiver. You must also wear a parachute during aerobatics, except during certain types of flight training. Related Topics Your Instructor: Patty Wagstaff Extra 300S: Introduction The Loop The Aileron Roll The Hammerhead The Cuban Eight The Spin The Split-S The Immelmann


Aerobatics Checklist
	Aerobatic Checklist Before performing any aerobatic maneuver, make sure you run through the following checklist. Before Takeoff • Check that your seat and harness are secure. Make sure your parachute has been inspected and packed within the last 120 days. • Make sure the cockpit is secure—you don't want loose objects flying around. In the Air • Check fuel quantity and fuel tank selector. • Verify that engine instruments all read normal. • Check the mixture and propeller controls. • Make sure you're at least 3000 ft (914 m) above ground level. • Perform at least two clearing turns to make sure the area is clear of other aircraft. • Establish appropriate reference points and review the proper airspeeds and G readings for the upcoming maneuver. Related Topics Your Instructor: Patty Wagstaff Extra 300S: Introduction Aerobatics: Rules to Live By The Loop The Aileron Roll The Hammerhead The Cuban Eight The Spin The Split-S The Immelmann


Flying Aerobatics in Flight Simulator
	Flying Aerobatics in Flight Simulator Before you zoom off to fly aerobatics, you need to master a few skills in Flight Simulator. • Get a joystick or control yoke. For advanced maneuvers, you'll also want rudder pedals or a joystick like the Microsoft Sidewinder that includes rudder controls. Make sure you know how to use the throttle control on the joystick. • Know how to change views so you can look out to the side and back. Aerobatic pilots constantly check reference points all around them as they fly. You can't fly precise aerobatics if you stare over the nose or at the instrument panel. • Know how to use the throttle and other engine controls. Some maneuvers require you to adjust power quickly from full throttle to idle. • Know how to turn the auto-coordination option on and off. Some maneuvers (e.g., the hammerhead and spins) require independent use of the rudder and ailerons. You need to turn auto-coordination off before flying those maneuvers. You'll also find that having independent controls helps you fly loops and other basic aerobatics more precisely. Related Topics Choosing a View or Direction Controlling the Airplane With a Joystick Turning Auto-Coordination On and Off


Aresti Notation: Aerobatic Hieroglyphs
	Aresti Notation: Aerobatic Hieroglyphs Aerobatic pilots use a special shorthand called Aresti notation to choreograph their competition routines and airshow programs. Pilots put a copy of their notes on the instrument panel like sheet music to help them remember each maneuver. Judges at competitions use a copy of the same notes to ensure that pilots fly every maneuver in the proper sequence. Aresti Essentials The Aresti scheme is based on a few simple symbols: • Each maneuver begins with a dot and ends with a vertical bar. • A line indicates the aircraft's flight path; a solid line indicates a positive G or "inside" maneuver; a dashed line represents a negative G or "outside" maneuver. • A curved arrow indicates a roll; a number beside an arrow indicates pauses in the roll. • A transparent upright triangle indicates an inside or positive snap roll; a solid triangle represents an outside or negative snap roll. • A horizontal right triangle indicates a spin. A transparent triangle represents an upright spin; a solid triangle represents an inverted spin. Related Topics The Aerobatic Box Extra 300S: Introduction Flying Aerobatics in Flight Simulator


The Aerobatic Box
	The Aerobatic Box At aerobatic competitions pilots fly their routines inside a "box" of airspace identified by markers on the ground. Dimensions The box is 3,300 ft (1,005 m) long, 3,300 ft (1,005 m) wide. The top is 3,500 ft (1,067 m) above ground level. The bottom of the box depends on the type of competition. For beginning Sportsman aerobatic pilots, the bottom is set at 1,500 ft (457 m). Intermediate pilots may fly as low as 1,200 ft (366 m). The base for Advanced pilots is 800 ft (244 m), and Unlimited pilots may fly to just 300 ft (91 m). During a competition pilots must signal the judges when they enter and leave the box. They must remain in the box throughout their routines. Judges deduct penalty points for each excursion outside the box. Practice in Flight Simulator You can find an aerobatic box in Flight Simulator. It's near the Avra Valley airport in Arizona. To find the box, fly a heading of about 180 degrees after taking off. You'll soon see the nine white markers that define the box. If you're familiar with VOR navigation, you can find the aerobatic box on the 297 degree radial of the Tucson VOR (116.0) at 21.1 nm DME. Related Topics Aresti Notation: Aerobatic Hieroglyphs Extra 300S: Introduction Flying Aerobatics in Flight Simulator


The Loop
	The Loop The loop—a vertical circle in the sky—is a fundamental aerobatic maneuver, one of the first skills fledgling aerobatic pilots learn. Practicing loops helps you get accustomed to unusual pitch attitudes, rapidly changing airspeeds, and the effects of Gs on you and the airplane. Flying a Loop Many pilots think that to fly a loop you just get the airplane up to speed and pull back on the stick. That approach might make the airplane zoom through 360 degrees around the pitch axis, but it's not likely to result in a competition-quality loop. In fact, it will probably lead either to a high-speed stall at the start of the maneuver or an ungraceful fall out of the sky as the airplane runs out of speed halfway through the loop. Flying the Loop As with all aerobatic maneuvers, the keys to doing a perfect loop are proper setup and smooth execution. • Start a loop by lining up with a road. Set the power to establish about 140 knots in level flight. Start a steady, smooth pull on the stick. You're looking for about 4 Gs on the G meter. • As the nose starts up, look to the left. The wing should trace a circle on the horizon. Adjust the amount of back pressure you hold to keep the wing tip moving in that circle. • As you approach inverted, look out the back so you can check the alignment of the wings with the horizon. If you have rudder pedals, use slight rudder pressure as necessary to keep the nose from wandering off the reference line. • At the inverted position, ease off on the back pressure. If you hold full back pressure on the stick, your loop will be egg shaped—and you might induce a stall at the top. • As you start down the back side of the loop, add back pressure. Check airspeed and power—you may need to reduce the throttle. Look over the nose to stay aligned with the reference line, but don't forget to glance to the left to make sure your wing tip is still tracing a perfect circle. Adjust back pressure as necessary. • Maintain back pressure as the nose comes back to the horizon. You should pull about 4 Gs at the bottom of a normal loop. Common Errors If you're having trouble flying nice round loops, here are a few considerations to keep in mind: • Not applying enough back pressure at the beginning of the loop makes the airplane lose speed and fall out of the maneuver. Maintain a steady pull on the stick to keep the nose moving around the pitch axis. • Pulling too hard increases load factor and may cause the airplane to stall during the first half of the maneuver. • Holding too much back pressure at the top of the loop results in elliptical loops—or a stall at the top. Relax back pressure as you approach the inverted. • Staring over the nose during the first part of a loop leaves you with nothing but blue sky to look at. Check your left wing tip during the maneuver. Look back over the tail as you pass through the vertical to make sure the wings stay level with the horizon. Related Topics Your Instructor: Patty Wagstaff Extra 300S: Introduction Aerobatics: Rules to Live By The Aileron Roll The Hammerhead The Cuban Eight The Spin The Split-S The Immelmann


The Aileron Roll
	The Aileron Roll In an aileron roll, the airplane rotates 360 degrees around its longitudinal axis, with the nose tracing a tight circle around a point on the horizon. Flying an Aileron Roll In the Extra 300S, which has a roll rate of more than 400 degrees per second, an aileron roll happens quickly. But it's still a four-step maneuver. • Pick a reference point on the horizon—a cloud or a road. • From level flight with the power set to maintain 140 knots, add back pressure on the stick to bring the nose up smoothly to about 20 degrees above the horizon. Glance to the left to verify that you've set the correct pitch attitude. • Hold back pressure on the stick, then move the stick quickly, but smoothly, all the way to one side. (It's generally easier to start with rolls to the left.) • Hold the stick all the way over and look out over the nose as the airplane rolls. The nose should trace a tight circle around the reference point. As the wings approach level with the horizon, center the stick. Common Errors The Extra 300S's brisk roll rate makes the aileron roll one of the easiest aerobatic maneuvers to fly. But if you have trouble flying smooth, polished rolls, keep the following common mistakes in mind: • Pulling the nose up too much or too little at the start of the maneuver leads to a sloppy roll. A pitch up of about 20 degrees makes the maneuver easier to manage. • Increasing back pressure after you establish the correct pitch attitude makes the nose wander off the reference point or brings the nose down too steeply as the airplane reaches the inverted position. • Failure to hold full aileron deflection during the maneuver. Make sure you hold the stick all the way over to the side until you're nearly upright. Related Topics Your Instructor: Patty Wagstaff Extra 300S: Introduction Aerobatics: Rules to Live By The Loop The Hammerhead The Cuban Eight The Spin The Split-S The Immelmann


The Hammerhead
	The Hammerhead A hammerhead, sometimes called a "hammerhead stall" or a "hammerhead turn," is a zero-airspeed turn. From vertical flight, the airplane pivots around a wing tip and then heads straight down. Airshow and competition pilots often use hammerheads to reverse direction and to convert altitude into airspeed for another maneuver. Flying a Hammerhead Flying a perfect hammerhead requires full power, and a strong, but smooth pull to establish an exact vertical line. Good timing in the pivot is also essential. NOTE: The hammerhead requires you to use the rudder and aileron controls independently, so make sure you turn off auto-coordination before flying a hammerhead. • Line up with a road in level flight. Set full power to establish about 180 knots in level flight. • Smoothly and quickly add back pressure to bring the nose up to the vertical. Pull hard enough to reach about 6 Gs on the G meter. • As the nose comes up, look to the left to make sure you're exactly vertical. Airspeed drops rapidly, and you'll need to make small forward and back adjustments with the stick to hold the airplane vertical. • As the airplane approaches zero airspeed, push full left rudder and move the stick to the right to add some right aileron as you pivot around the wing tip. • As you start straight down, ease back on the power, neutralize the rudders, and then pull smoothly to recover to level flight. Common Errors If you find hammerheads leave you sliding backward or spinning earthward, review these common errors: • Starting at too slow an entry speed makes it hard to establish and hold a good vertical line. Make sure you begin a hammerhead with at least 180 knots showing on the airspeed indicator. • Failure to maintain an exact vertical line makes a good pivot impossible. You'll likely end up nosing over, flopping onto your back, or twisting off to the side. As you climb, keep an eye on the left wing tip and use forward and back pressure to keep the airplane headed straight up. • Using rudder alone to pivot usually makes the airplane roll at the top. Make sure you add a little opposite aileron as you push the rudder. You want the airplane to pivot, not tumble. • Poor timing on the pivot leads to all sorts of problems. If you wait too long, the airplane stops and can even slide backward—leading to whip stall. Pivoting too soon doesn't cause much trouble—except with the judges. They want to see the airplane pivot around its wing tip. Related Topics Your Instructor: Patty Wagstaff Extra 300S: Introduction Aerobatics: Rules to Live By The Loop The Aileron Roll The Cuban Eight The Spin The Split-S The Immelmann


The Cuban Eight
	The Cuban Eight The Cuban eight is one of the first combination maneuvers aerobatic pilots learn. A Cuban eight is two three-quarter loops, with a descending half aileron roll on the back side of each loop. To an observer on the ground, the airplane traces a figure "8" lying on its side. To Fly a Cuban Eight If you can fly consistent, accurate loops and aileron rolls you'll have no trouble with the Cuban eight. On the other hand, if you're a bit rusty on those maneuvers, take some time to review them before tackling the Cuban eight. When you're ready, follow this basic procedure: • Line up with a road. From level flight at about 140 knots, pull up as if starting a loop. You should pull about 4 Gs. Smoothly increase power in the climb so you reach full throttle as the nose arrives at the vertical. • As you climb, look to the left to make sure the wing tip is drawing a circle on the horizon. As the nose drops toward the horizon, look back to check that your wings are level, and continue the loop. • Look out at the left wing again. As the nose approaches 45-degrees below the horizon (inverted), add forward pressure on the stick to maintain that 45-degree angle. You may need to reduce power a bit to keep airspeed under control. • Hold the 45-degree line for a moment and then move the stick left or right to roll upright. Look out the front to check alignment with the reference line. Glance at the left wing to make sure the nose stays at the 45-degree angle until you complete the roll. • Apply smooth back pressure to bring the nose back up into a second loop and repeat the process to complete a full Cuban eight. Common Errors The most common mistakes in flying a Cuban eight are the same errors pilots make during loops and aileron rolls. If you're having trouble during the looping or rolling phases, review the procedures for those maneuvers. The biggest problems specific to the Cuban eight include: • Not holding enough forward pressure on the stick during the dive on the 45-degree line. This error causes the nose to drop toward the ground on the back side of each loop. • Staring over the nose during the entire maneuver leads to lopsided "8s." Remember to check the wing tips and toward the tail to keep the airplane properly aligned throughout the maneuver. Related Topics Your Instructor: Patty Wagstaff Extra 300S: Introduction Aerobatics: Rules to Live By The Loop The Aileron Roll The Hammerhead The Spin The Split-S The Immelmann


The Spin
	The Spin A spin is a prolonged stall in which the airplane corkscrews at a steep descent angle and low airspeed. The airplane's twisting motion looks like a series of rolls, but it's actually a yawing motion called autorotation. Types of Spins Spins come in two basic varieties. The unintentional (often fatal) spin at low altitude starts when a pilot tries to correct a sloppy turn toward the runway during the final leg of a landing pattern. Competition and airshow pilots fly intentional spins, aerobatic maneuvers that require the pilot to enter cleanly and recover crisply after a specified number of turns and on a predetermined heading. This topic and its interactive lesson describe intentional spins. NOTE: Flying a spin requires you to use the rudder and aileron controls independently, so make sure you turn off autocoordination before flying a spin. Flying a Spin To spin an airplane, the wing must first stall. The maneuver begins with a slightly exaggerated entry to a power-on or departure stall. • Line up with a reference point such as a road or intersection. • Reduce power to establish level flight at about 90 knots. • Add back pressure to pull the nose up smoothly to about 40 degrees. Glance at the left wing tip to establish the correct pitch attitude. • While holding back pressure, close the throttle. You'll need to increase back pressure as the airplane decelerates. Glance to the left to maintain the correct pitch attitude. • Just before the airplane stalls, smoothly pull the stick full back. Apply and hold full rudder in the direction you want to spin. The nose will fall toward the vertical as the spin starts. • Hold the stick full back and maintain full rudder deflection. Look out over the nose and count the number of turns. • To stop the spin, apply full rudder opposite the direction of rotation, and relax back pressure to break the stall. As soon as the rotation stops, neutralize the rudder. Ease back on the stick as airspeed builds. Add power as the nose comes up to the horizon. Common Errors Spins often turn into steep, spiraling descents. To fly precise spins, keep the following considerations in mind: • Applying less than full elevator and rudder pressure leads to a sloppy entry. The airplane noses over into a steep spiraling descent and airspeed builds rapidly. And remember, to spin, an airplane must be stalled. • Relaxing back pressure on the stick and/or rudder pressure quickly breaks the stall. Apply and hold full rudder and full back pressure during a spin. Relax control pressures only when you're ready to recover. • Forgetting to close the throttle leads to excessive airspeed and loss of altitude. When the airplane enters the spin, make sure you bring the throttle all the way back. • Holding rudder after the rotation stops can start a spin in the opposite direction. Apply rudder opposite the direction of rotation to stop the spin, then neutralize the rudder pedals. • Abrupt control movements can lead to secondary stalls. Recover from the maneuver promptly, but smoothly. Related Topics Your Instructor: Patty Wagstaff Extra 300S: Introduction Aerobatics: Rules to Live By The Loop The Aileron Roll The Hammerhead The Cuban Eight The Split-S The Immelmann


The Split-S
	The Split-S A split-S is an old fighter-pilot's trick to reverse course and convert altitude into airspeed for a quick getaway. To a modern aerobatic pilot, the split-S is a combination maneuver, a half aileron roll to inverted followed by a half loop. To Fly the Split-S Lesson Although the split-S looks like a simple maneuver, it can bite the unwary pilot. Airspeed builds rapidly during the descending half loop, and sloppy roll technique can lead to a dangerous steep spiral. Before attempting a split-S, it's best to review the loop and aileron roll. When you're ready to try a split-S, follow this basic procedure: • Line up with a road. Set the power to maintain level flight at about 90 knots. • Start a half aileron roll and ease the throttle all the way back. • Look over the nose to check wings level at the inverted position. Smoothly apply and hold back pressure to start the half loop. Maintain enough back pressure to keep the nose moving through around the pitch axis and to keep airspeed from building too quickly. • Recover to straight and level flight and set cruise power as the nose returns to the horizon. Common Errors Sloppy roll and loop technique causes the most problems for pilots trying a split-S. Review those maneuvers and keep the following considerations in mind: • Make sure you start from a safe altitude. Don't start a split-S below 3000 feet (914 m). • Airspeed builds quickly in the dive. Make sure you pull the nose on through to level flight, but don't pull so hard that you induce a stall. Related Topics Your Instructor: Patty Wagstaff Extra 300S: Introduction Aerobatics: Rules to Live By The Loop The Aileron Roll The Hammerhead The Cuban Eight The Spin The Immelmann


The Immelmann
	The Immelmann Legend has it that Max Immelmann, a German ace in World War I, devised this maneuver—a climbing half-loop, followed by a half aileron roll to level flight. Although it's doubtful Immelmann was the true inventor, this maneuver did prove an effective way to shake an attacker while gaining altitude and reversing direction. Flying the Immelmann Think of an Immelmann as a reverse split-S, and you'll understand the basic principles behind this maneuver. • Line up with a road and set power to establish level flight at about 160 knots. • Start a smooth pull-up, about 4 Gs. • Add full power as the nose reaches the vertical. Look to the side to check your flight path. • Look toward the rear. As the horizon comes into view, move the stick to the side to start a roll. • Hold back pressure until the nose reaches the horizon. Center the stick as you return to upright level flight. Common Errors Remember to start an Immelmann at least 150 knots. Don't pull up too slowly, and remember to add full power during the climb to avoid stalling at the top. Related Topics Your Instructor: Patty Wagstaff Extra 300S: Introduction Aerobatics: Rules to Live By The Loop The Aileron Roll The Hammerhead The Cuban Eight The Spin The Split-S


The Axes of Flight
	The Axes of Flight Aircraft rotate around three axes: the longitudinal axis, the vertical axis, and the lateral axis. In an airplane, movement about each axis is controlled by one of the three primary control surfaces. Ailerons, Rudder, and Elevator Pilots use ailerons to bank or roll about the longitudinal axis. Rudder controls yaw about the vertical axis, and the elevator controls pitch about the lateral axis. The three axes intersect at the center of gravity. Smooth, coordinated use of controls separates pilots from airplane drivers. Good pilots use all the flight controls together to produce coordinated motion about the three axes. Related Topics The Four Forces of Flight Controlling the Airplane With a Joystick Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick


The Four Forces of Flight
	The Four Forces of Flight Inventors and scientists struggled for centuries to understand the basic principles of flight. Experts still debate the details of aerodynamics, but pilots need to understand a few fundamental concepts, starting with the four forces that affect flight: lift, weight, thrust, and drag. These four forces act in pairs. Lift (actually, the sum of all upward forces) opposes weight (actually, the sum of all downward forces), and thrust opposes drag. The opposing forces balance one another in steady-state flight. Steady-state flight includes straight-and-level flight and constant-rate climbs or descents at a steady airspeed. You can assume that the four forces act through a single point called the center of gravity (CG). Lift Lift is the force that makes an airplane fly. Most of an airplane's lift comes from its wings. You control the amount of lift a wing creates by adjusting airspeed and angle of attack (AOA)—the angle at which the wing meets the oncoming air. In general, as an aircraft's airspeed or angle of attack increases, so does the amount of lift created by the wings. As an airplane's speed increases, you must reduce the angle of attack—lower the nose slightly—to maintain a constant altitude. As the airplane slows down, you must increase the angle of attack—raise the nose slightly—to generate more lift and maintain altitude. Remember that even in a climb or descent, lift essentially equals weight. An aircraft's rate of climb or descent is primarily related to the amount of thrust generated by its engines, not by the amount of lift created by its wings. Weight Weight opposes lift. As a practical matter, you can assume that weight always acts along a line from the airplane's center of gravity to the center of the earth. At first you might assume that weight changes only as fuel is consumed. In fact, as an airplane maneuvers, it experiences variations in load factor, or G forces, which change the load supported by the wings. For example, an airplane making a level turn in a 60-degree bank experiences a load factor of 2. If that airplane weighs 2,000 lbs (907 kg) at rest on the ground, its effective weight becomes 4,000 lbs (1,814 kg) during that turn. To maintain the balance between lift and weight during maneuvers, you must adjust the angle of attack. During a steeply banked turn, for example, you must raise the nose slightly (increase the angle of attack) to produce more lift and thus balance the increased weight. Thrust Thrust provided by an aircraft's powerplant propels it through the air. Thrust is opposed by drag, and in steady-state flight thrust and drag are equal. If you increase thrust and maintain altitude, thrust momentarily exceeds drag, and the airplane accelerates. Drag increases, too, however, and soon drag once again balances thrust. The airplane stops accelerating and resumes steady-state flight at a higher, but constant airspeed. Thrust is also the most important factor in determining your airplane's ability to climb. In fact, an airplane's maximum rate of climb is related not to the amount of lift its wings create, but to the amount of power available beyond that required to maintain level flight. Drag Two kinds of drag affect an airplane. Parasite drag is friction between the air and an aircraft's structure—landing gear, struts, antennas, and so forth. Parasite drag increases as the square of an aircraft's velocity. If you double airspeed, parasite drag quadruples. Induced drag is a byproduct of lift. It is caused by air moving from the high-pressure area below a wing into the low-pressure area above the wing. This effect is most pronounced at slow airspeeds where a high angle of attack is necessary to produce enough lift to balance weight. In fact, induced drag varies inversely as the square of the airspeed. If you reduce airspeed by half, induced drag increases four times. A Balancing Act You can observe the relationship between the four forces by trying some experiments in Flight Simulator. Set up straight-and-level flight in the Cessna Skylane RG. Without moving the flight controls, add power. At first, airspeed increases, then the nose pitches up. Soon, however, the airplane stops accelerating and the airspeed returns to about its original value. Notice, however, that because you've added power, the airplane climbs at a steady rate. Reduce the power below the original setting, and the airspeed eventually settles near the original value, but the airplane descends at a steady rate. Related Topics The Axes of Flight How Wings Work Controlling the Airplane With a Joystick


How Wings Work
	How Wings Work Wings—not engines—are what make an airplane fly. Although wings come in many shapes, they all produce lift by splitting the oncoming air, called the relative wind. Air flowing under the wing maintains its ambient pressure. Air flowing over the curved upper surface accelerates, and due to several factors, including Bernoulli's principle, drops in pressure. The difference between the relatively high pressure below a wing and the relatively low pressure above creates a force, called lift. Deflection of the air downward from the bottom of the surface of the wing also contributes to the total lift that a wing produces. Pilots change a wing's lift by using the elevator to adjust the airplane's pitch attitude, and thus the wing's angle of attack (AOA). Flight Path vs. Pitch Attitude It's important to remember that the relative wind does not necessarily come from the direction in which the airplane's nose is pointed. For example, as the space shuttle glides in for a landing, its nose points well above the horizon, yet it's descending at a steep angle. Its wing flies at a very high angle of attack. To put it another way, angle of attack is not measured relative to the horizon. It's the angle between an airplane's flight path and its wings. Related Topics The Four Forces of Flight Stalls Straight-and-Level Flight Climbs Descents


Stalls
	Stalls A stall occurs when a wing reaches its critical angle of attack. Regardless of load factor, airspeed, bank angle, or atmospheric conditions, a wing always stalls at the same critical angle of attack. Pilots control angle of attack with the elevator. A stall is an aerodynamic phenomenon—it has nothing to do with an airplane's engine. Gliders, huge airliners, jet fighters, and prop-driven, general aviation trainers all stall when their wings reach a specific angle of attack—not because their engines falter. Anatomy of a Stall Up to a point, increasing the angle of attack increases the amount of lift a wing produces. Eventually, however, air flowing over the top of the wing can no longer follow the wing's contour and it begins to swirl like water flowing over rocks in a stream. At this point, called the critical angle of attack, total lift drops suddenly, and the wing stalls. Every wing has a specific critical angle of attack, and it always stalls at that angle. Most general aviation aircraft have wings with a critical angle of attack of about 15 degrees. Inexperienced pilots often mistake pitch attitude for angle of attack. Remember that the airplane's flight path (and therefore the relative wind) may not be in the direction that the nose of the airplane is pointing. Warning Signs A slight shaking or buffeting often precedes a stall. This vibration begins as the air flowing over the top of the wing becomes turbulent. When this air hits the horizontal stabilizer and elevator you may feel a slight vibration in the control yoke or stick. Most airplanes have a stall warning horn to alert you as the airplane approaches a stall. Recovering From a Stall There is only one way to recover from a stall—reduce the angle of attack. Apply forward pressure on the control yoke or stick to reduce the angle of attack, and add power to minimize loss of altitude. Related Topics How Wings Work The Four Forces of Flight Controlling the Airplane With a Joystick


Center of Gravity
	Center of Gravity The center of gravity (CG) is the point from which an airplane would hang if it were suspended by a cable. It's also the point at which the longitudinal, vertical, and lateral axes intersect. To ensure that an airplane is stable in flight and responds properly to control inputs, you must load your airplane carefully to keep the CG within its design range. The CG Seesaw An empty airplane is like a seesaw. It balances on its center of gravity. Each item added to the airplane shifts the CG slightly. Objects placed forward of the original CG tend to tip the airplane forward. Objects placed behind the CG tend to tip it backward. The amount of tipping force or "moment" depends on the weight of the object and its "arm"—the distance between the object and an arbitrary reference line called the datum. In many airplanes the datum is the firewall that separates the engine compartment from the cockpit. Managing the CG Pilots manage the CG by controlling how weight is distributed in the aircraft cabin. In most small airplanes, the fuel tanks and seats are located close to the optimum CG, so the CG doesn't move much as fuel, people, and luggage are added. Nevertheless, before every flight a pilot must ensure that the CG of the loaded airplane falls between the forward and aft limits specified by the manufacturer. The CG and Stability Keeping the CG within its design limits is critical because the position of the CG affects an airplane's stability, just as the position of a child on a seesaw changes the board's balance point. As the CG moves aft, an airplane becomes less stable in pitch. If the CG is too far aft, it may be impossible to lower the nose to recover from a stall. If the CG is too far forward, the airplane is "nose heavy," making it difficult or impossible to flare during the final phase of landing. Related Topics The Four Forces of Flight How Wings Work


Climbs
	Climbs An airplane climbs when its engine or engines produce more power (thrust) than is required to maintain level flight at a particular weight and angle of attack. Airplanes do not climb because the wings generate more lift. This point may seem confusing, but it makes sense if you remember that whenever an airplane is in steady-state flight—for example, a climb at a constant airspeed and rate—lift equals weight. If lift exceeded weight during a climb, an airplane would accelerate upward. A Steady Pull During a steady-state climb, the component of lift acting vertically toward the ground is actually slightly less than weight, because when the airplane is in a climb attitude, some of the lift vector is directed rearward, not upward. So a climb is caused by the thrust vector pulling the airplane up at an angle. Imagine someone tugging a sled up a hill, and you'll get the general idea. More Power If power determines rate of climb, then it's apparent that the throttle, not the control yoke, is the primary "up-down" control in an airplane. Pulling back on the yoke to increase an airplane's pitch attitude usually does start a climb. But an increase in induced drag quickly counteracts the boost in lift, and the airplane, having gained a little altitude, settles into level flight at a lower airspeed or into a slow, constant-rate climb. To establish and maintain a steady rate of climb, excess thrust must be available, and you must add power. Try It If discussions of lift vectors and power seem a little confusing, you can see the principles at work in Flight Simulator. Try the lesson "Climbs, Turns, and Descents." Related Topics The Four Forces of Flight Straight-and-Level Flight Descents Controlling the Airplane With a Joystick


Descents
	Descents Many people assume that to descend you simply push forward on the control yoke or stick to point the airplane's nose down. In fact, the pilot must adjust both pitch and power to establish a stable descent at a constant airspeed. You can descend with the airplane in a level or even nose-up attitude. Remember that if you hold an airplane's pitch attitude constant, thrust—power—determines whether the airplane maintains altitude, climbs, or descends. If the engine produces more thrust than is required to maintain level flight, the airplane climbs. It descends if you reduce power. As a rule of thumb, limit descents in unpressurized airplanes to about 500 ft/min (152 m/min). This rate allows passenger's ears to adjust to pressure changes during the descent. Spend some time with the airplanes in Flight Simulator to familiarize yourself with the performance that you can expect at different power settings and airspeeds. Remember, the lower the power, the greater the rate of descent. Also practice stopping a descent by smoothly adding power. Related Topics The Four Forces of Flight Straight-and-Level Flight Climbs Controlling the Airplane With a Joystick


Straight-and-Level Flight
	Straight-and-Level Flight Flying straight and level may look simple, but it's actually one of the more difficult flight maneuvers to master. Because pilots want to control airplanes, they overdo it most of the time and interfere with the airplane's basic stability. Like a balancing act, straight-and-level flight requires that you make smooth, small corrections to keep the airplane from wobbling all over the sky. Divide and Conquer It's best to break down the task of establishing and maintaining straight-and-level flight into two parts: • Holding a constant altitude and airspeed. This part requires that the pairs of opposing forces—lift and weight, thrust and drag—remain balanced. • Holding a constant heading. This part requires you to monitor the heading indicator and turn coordinator to hold the wings level, maintain coordinated flight, and correct minor deviations in heading. Pitch + Power = Performance Fortunately, there's a simple rule that can help you handle the first task. The basic equation Pitch + Power = Performance is a pilot's golden rule. It means simply that if you establish a specific pitch attitude and set power at a constant level, the airplane will fly at a particular airspeed and either maintain level flight or climb or descend at a constant rate. For example, to set up a typical cruise configuration at 3,000 ft (915 m) in the Cessna, set the throttle to deliver about 2,300 RPM. To maintain level flight, adjust the pitch attitude so that the miniature airplane on the attitude indicator is level with the horizon. The top of the instrument panel is below the real horizon when you look out the front window. If you keep the nose from rising or falling and leave the power set at 2,300 RPM, the Cessna will maintain altitude and cruise at about 120 knots indicated airspeed. If the airplane starts to gain or lose altitude, make small, smooth corrections to the pitch attitude and adjust the elevator trim so eventually the airplane flies "hands off." Keeping It Straight Maintaining a constant heading is a little easier than holding altitude, but you still need to keep a close eye on the flight instruments. Check the heading indicator frequently to make sure the nose stays pointed in the right direction. Cross-check the turn coordinator. If the wings on the miniature airplane are level, the airplane isn't turning. If the wings aren't level, you need to apply smooth, slight pressure on the ailerons and rudder to level the wings and maintain coordinated flight. Related Topics The Four Forces of Flight Turns Climbs Descents Controlling the Airplane With a Joystick


Turns
	Turns An airplane turns because some of the lift that the wings produce push it "around the corner," not because the rudder swings the nose left or right. In theory, you could skid an airplane through a turn with the rudder, but that's an inefficient (and uncomfortable) way to change direction. That's why airplanes bank to turn. The Horizontal Component of Lift Banking the wings with the ailerons deflects some of the lift that the wings produce sideways. This part of the airplane's total lift is called the horizontal component of lift. It's this force that pushes an airplane around in a turn. Adverse Yaw Banking the wings changes the angle of attack of each wing. And the deflection of ailerons changes the drag of each wing. These two factors create a tendency for the airplane to yaw opposite the turn. That is, if you bank to the left, the airplane's nose tends to swing toward the right. To compensate for this effect, called "adverse yaw," you must apply rudder pressure in the same direction as the turn. As you bank left, you should add a little left rudder, and vice-versa. Loss of Lift Because some of the lift is deflected sideways in a turn, to maintain altitude you must increase the total lift that the wings produce. To increase lift, you must increase the angle of attack, so add a little up elevator pressure as you roll into a turn. The steeper the turn, the more up elevator pressure you must add. In steeply banked turns of 45 degrees or more, you must add considerable up elevator pressure (and probably add power, as well) to maintain altitude. Just remember to relax that back pressure on the joystick or control yoke as you roll out of the turn. Related Topics The Four Forces of Flight Straight-and-Level Flight Climbs Descents Controlling the Airplane With a Joystick


Basics of Helicopter Flight
	Basics of Helicopter Flight The following topics provide general information about flying a helicopter. For specific information about flying the Bell 206B JetRanger III, see the Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. Rotors Are Wings The key to understanding helicopter aerodynamics is remembering that a helicopter's main rotor system is its wings. Because the rotors are airfoils, they produce lift much like an airplane's wings, and they react to changes in angle of attack—and stall—just like a wing. Flight Controls Like an airplane, a helicopter has four basic flight controls: the collective, the cyclic, the anti-torque pedals, and the throttle. As in an airplane, but to an even greater degree, you must coordinate movements of all the controls—moving one control requires a corresponding control input on one or both of the others. Helicopter flying demands small, smooth control inputs. Unlike airplanes, helicopters are inherently unstable. Abrupt or large movements of the controls quickly lead to ever-larger oscillations that can rapidly escalate to complete loss of control. To fly a helicopter accurately and smoothly, remember to use control pressures. And most important, make sure you understand the special aerodynamic effects unique to helicopters and the proper control inputs to compensate for them. You must anticipate these effects, not just react to them. Special Aerodynamic Effects The operating characteristics of helicopters create special aerodynamic conditions that a pilot must understand. Among the most important are: • Ground effect • Translating tendency (cyclic rigging) • Effective translational lift (ETL) • Transverse flow effect • Dissymmetry of lift Hazardous Conditions Helicopter pilots must also be aware of several conditions that they may encounter. The following situations require immediate and correct responses to avoid loss of control. • Retreating blade stall • Settling with power • Low-G condition Blade stall caused by low rotor RPM, engine failure, and tail rotor failure also require immediate corrective action. Rotor Systems Most modern helicopters have one of three types of main rotor systems: • Semi-rigid • Fully articulated • Rigid The Bell 206B JetRanger III has a semi-rigid rotor system with relatively high inertia—meaning that the rotors lose and build RPM more slowly than helicopters with lighter rotor systems. This high-inertia is an advantage during autorotation and some other maneuvers, but it can cause problems if you need to apply power quickly. Divided Power A helicopter's engine drives both the main rotor and the tail anti-torque rotor. If you must use a high power setting to maintain a hover or to hover in a strong right crosswind, the tail rotor may not be able to develop sufficient thrust to counteract the torque developed by the main rotor or the helicopter's tendency to weathervane into the wind. NOTE: The topics about helicopter aerodynamics and controls assume that the aircraft's main rotor turns left, or counter-clockwise, when viewed from above. Helicopters manufactured in the U.S. have this type of main rotor. However, many helicopters made in elsewhere in the world have main rotors that turn to the right, or clockwise, when viewed from above. If you are flying a made helicopter manufactured outside the U.S., you may need reverse the pedal inputs and some cyclic inputs described in these topics. Related Topics Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook


Operating Helicopter Flight Controls
	Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Helicopters are inherently unstable and much more sensitive to control inputs than most aircraft. To fly a helicopter smoothly and precisely, you must coordinate use of all the flight and power controls. Keep these basic considerations in mind as you fly the Bell 206B JetRanger III: • Use smooth, small control pressures, not abrupt or large control movements. Just thinking about what you want to do is usually sufficient to make the helicopter respond. • Anticipate how moving one control will require corresponding movements of the other controls. For example, if you add power by increasing collective, you must also add left anti-torque pedal to compensate for the helicopter's tendency to rotate to the right. If you wait to see the effect and then react, you'll have trouble controlling the aircraft. • Never remove your hand from the cyclic while the main rotor is turning. • After landing, make sure the helicopter has firmly settled and that the collective is in the full down position as you prepare to shut down the engine. Hold the cyclic in the neutral position until the main rotor stops. NOTE: The topics about helicopter aerodynamics and controls assume that the aircraft's main rotor turns left, or counter-clockwise, when viewed from above. Helicopters manufactured in the U.S. have this type of main rotor. However, many helicopters made elsewhere in the world have main rotors that turn to the right, or clockwise, when viewed from above. If you are flying a helicopter manufactured outside the U.S., you may need to reverse the pedal inputs and some cyclic inputs described in these topics. Related Topics Using the Collective Using the Cyclic Using the Anti-Torque Pedals Basics of Helicopter Flight Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook


Using the Collective
	Using the Collective The collective is a helicopter's primary altitude and power control. It varies the lift produced by the main rotor system by increasing or decreasing the pitch of all the main rotor blades simultaneously or collectively, hence the name of the control. Raising and Lowering the Collective In a real helicopter, you use your left arm to raise and lower the collective by moving a long lever that's mounted on the floor of the cockpit. The collective looks like the hand brake on a car. To operate the collective in Flight Simulator, use the throttle lever or control on a joystick, or press F3 to increase collective and F2 to decrease collective. Raising the collective increases the pitch (and therefore the angle of attack) of all of the blades simultaneously, increasing the amount of lift that the main rotor system produces. Lowering the collective decreases the pitch (angle of attack) of all of the blades simultaneously, decreasing the amount of lift that the main rotor system produces. When you raise the collective, you also increase torque. Therefore, you must also add left anti-torque pedal. Reducing collective causes the helicopter to descend and decreases torque, so to maintain coordinated flight, you must apply right pedal pressure as you lower the collective. Throttle The throttle is mounted at the end of the collective. On a turbine-powered helicopter like the Bell 206B JetRanger III, the pilot normally sets and leaves the throttle at 100 percent power during flight. The engine fuel control unit and governor automatically adjust the power turbine and rotor RPM as the pilot increases and decreases the collective. To control the throttle independently in Flight Simulator, press CTRL+F2 to decrease power and CTRL+F3 to increase power. Monitor the power turbine gauge to set engine power as a percentage of power turbine RPM. Related Topics Using the Cyclic Using the Anti-Torque Pedals Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick Basics of Helicopter Flight Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook


Using the Cyclic
	Using the Cyclic In flight, the cyclic controls the helicopter's pitch and bank attitude (like the yoke or stick that controls the elevator and ailerons in an airplane). It is the primary airspeed control in flight. Applying forward cyclic causes airspeed to increase. Aft cyclic pressure reduces airspeed. In a hover, the cyclic controls the direction and speed of the helicopter's movement across the ground. Moving the cyclic forward makes the helicopter fly forward. Moving the cyclic to the left makes the helicopter translate—move over the ground—to the left, and so forth. The amount you move the cyclic determines how fast the helicopter moves in a particular direction. Coordinating the Controls Moving the cyclic usually requires you to make adjustments with the other flight controls, the collective and the anti-torque pedals. For example, in normal cruising flight, applying forward cyclic causes the helicopter's nose to drop. Airspeed increases and the helicopter descends unless you increase collective to increase the lift produced by the main rotor and add power. Applying aft cyclic causes the helicopter's nose to rise. Airspeed drops and the helicopter descends unless you apply down collective to reduce power. Of course, moving the collective changes torque, so you must also apply left or right anti-torque pedal to maintain coordinated flight. Compensating for Aerodynamic Effects You also use the cyclic to compensate for two important aerodynamic effects unique to helicopters: • Dissymmetry of lift: Apply right cyclic to compensate for the helicopter's tendency to roll left during this condition. • Right translating tendency: Apply left cyclic to compensate for the helicopter's tendency to drift right in a hover. Related Topics Using the Collective Using the Anti-Torque Pedals Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick Basics of Helicopter Flight Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook


Using the Anti-Torque Pedals
	Using the Anti-Torque Pedals The anti-torque pedals compensate for the torque produced by the main rotor. Coordinating the Controls When you add power by increasing collective, you must use left pedal to keep the helicopter from rotating to the right. Likewise, if you decrease power by lowering the collective, you must use right pedal to compensate for the reduction in torque. Using the Pedals in a Hover In a hover, use the pedals to maintain the helicopter's heading—the direction in which the nose is pointing. In a stationary hover, you can also use left or right pedal to turn the helicopter. This type of turn is called a "pedal turn." Using the Pedals in Stabilized Forward Flight In cruising flight and during normal climbs and descents, use the pedals to maintain coordinated flight—that is, to keep the helicopter in trim. Do not use the pedals to turn the helicopter except while in a hover. Use the cyclic to bank and turn the helicopter and to maintain the aircraft's heading. You can determine whether the helicopter is in trim by checking the ball in the turn coordinator or turn needle. If the ball is left of center, add left pedal pressure. If the ball is right of center, apply right pedal pressure. Related Topics Using the Collective Using the Cyclic Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick Basics of Helicopter Flight Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook


Hovering
	Hovering A helicopter can hover close to the ground or, depending on the aircraft's weight, wind, and the current density altitude, at a higher altitude. Hovering in Ground Effect When a helicopter is within about one-half its rotor span above the ground it is generally considered to be hovering in ground effect.  At this low altitude, the helicopter experiences an increase in performance. The ground reduces the vortices coming off the rotor blade tips, reducing induced drag. At the same time, air sucked into the rotor disk from above accelerates downward and hits the ground. Because the ground prevents the air from getting out of the way quickly, the air can't accelerate as rapidly as it does when the helicopter hovers at a higher altitude. This slower induced flow doesn't reduce the angle of attack of the rotor blades as much as it does in a hover at higher altitude, and the rotor can provide more lift at a given power (collective) setting. To hover in ground effect in the Bell 206B JetRanger III, you should fly at a skid height of about 3 ft or 1 m AGL. This altitude keeps you within the height where ground effect is most pronounced, keeps the skids clear of the ground, and is a safe altitude if the engine fails. General Operating Guidelines During a low-altitude hover, remember to look at least 50–75 ft (15–22 m) ahead of the aircraft to maintain the proper attitude, altitude, and heading. If possible, look out at the horizon and use tall buildings, trees, or other objects to help you maintain your position and aircraft attitude. Look for both vertical and horizontal references so you can quickly detect changes in heading (yaw) and pitch attitude. In a typical helicopter, if you raise the skids more than about 3 ft (1 m) above the ground, the helicopter begins to fly out of ground effect, and you need more power to maintain a hover. Remember that the cyclic controls the direction in which the helicopter moves. Use small, smooth adjustments of the collective to maintain the proper altitude. To maintain heading—the direction the nose is pointing—apply pressure to the left or right anti-torque pedal. Related Topics Bell 206B JetRanger III: Hovering Basics of Helicopter Flight Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook


Taxiing a Helicopter
	Taxiing a Helicopter The Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) describes the proper procedures for maneuvering a helicopter to and from aircraft parking areas and the runways. Although these procedures apply specifically to airports with operating control towers, you should follow these guidelines at any airport. Stay Out of the Way The general principle behind all the procedures for operating a helicopter in and around an airport is simple: Avoid the flow of fixed-wing aircraft whenever possible. As the pilot, you are responsible for avoiding people, other aircraft, buildings, and other hazards and for ensuring that your rotor wash does not damage property or create a hazard. You should not fly directly over other aircraft, vehicles, and people. Taxi Methods Helicopter pilots use three basic taxiing techniques: • ATC uses the word "taxi" when it expects a helicopter to move on the airport surface via taxiways or other prescribed routes. "Taxi" is used primarily for helicopters equipped with wheels. Taxiing on the ground reduces the effects of rotor downwash. • Helicopter pilots can request a hover taxi when they want to move forward slowly over short distances. Unless ATC approves a higher altitude, you should remain below 25 ft (8 m) AGL. • When ground operations and conditions permit, you should air taxi. This method enables you to operate at an optimum airspeed and altitude, minimize downwash, conserve fuel, and move about more quickly. Unless otherwise instructed, during an air taxi you should remain below 100 ft (30 m) AGL. General Considerations Regardless of which taxi method you use, keep these basic operating considerations in mind: • Watch your speed. A good rule of thumb is to taxi no faster than a brisk walk. • When taxiing on or above a taxiway, stay over the taxiway centerline. • Make sure that you do not inadvertently cross other taxiways, runways, ramps, and other areas. Make sure that you understand your taxi instructions. Related Topics Basics of Helicopter Flight Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook


Helicopter Takeoffs
	Helicopter Takeoffs A normal takeoff from a hover in a helicopter follows a liftoff to a hover in ground effect. The most important thing to remember during a takeoff is to use smooth, small control inputs—good advice when in any aircraft. Here's some basic advice to help you take off successfully: • You must position the controls precisely and smoothly, using fine adjustments. • Confirm the direction of the traffic pattern and note key points to help you fly the correct crosswind, downwind, base, and final legs. • When you're ready to take off, note a point (for example, a tall building) at least 50–75 ft (15–23 m) away. Use that point and the outside horizon as references to help you maintain alignment and altitude as you lift off. Don't stare at the ground in front of the helicopter's nose. • Set the cyclic in an approximately neutral position. Set the collective full down. • Smoothly and slowly raise the collective. Depending on the aircraft's weight and wind conditions, the helicopter should become light on the skids as you reach 60–70 percent torque. Ease into this range smoothly and slowly. • As the helicopter's weight comes off the skids, it will start to drift and turn to the right. Hold the collective steady at this point and use slight left cyclic to correct for drift. Apply left pedal pressure to correct the turning tendency. • Keep your attention outside the helicopter and focus on the horizon. To continue the liftoff, smoothly increase the collective. • Anticipate the need to add left pedal as you lift off, and make small, smooth corrections with the cyclic and pedals to maintain heading and position. • Hold the helicopter skids about 3 ft (1 m) above the ground. At typical weights and in light or calm winds, you'll probably need 70–75 percent torque to maintain the hover. Use the collective to maintain altitude; correct attitude with light, small cyclic pressures, and maintain heading with the pedals. • Anticipate making corrections to compensate for wind. You'll need slight forward cyclic pressure if you take off into a headwind, left cyclic pressure with a left crosswind, and so forth. • When you're ready to start the takeoff, gently apply a small amount of forward cyclic to lower the nose and begin moving forward along your departure path. The helicopter may tend to settle as you start forward. Compensate by adding slight up collective pressure. • As airspeed reaches 10–15 knots, the helicopter enters effective translational lift. The nose tends to yaw left and pitch up slightly. Apply small, smooth forward and left cyclic and right pedal pressure to maintain a slightly nose-low attitude and the correct heading. The helicopter will continue climbing and accelerating. Establish a climb at 60 knots. This speed delivers a good rate of climb and is the best speed for an emergency autorotation should the engine fail. • Continue the takeoff by flying a modified traffic pattern. Climb straight ahead to 300 ft (90 m). To correct for a crosswind, use a slip while at or below 50 ft (15 m) AGL. At higher altitudes, crab into the wind to maintain ground track. • Turn 90 degrees to the crosswind leg. To accelerate and maintain rate of climb, increase collective and add slight forward cyclic. Climb to 500 ft. On the crosswind leg, you can depart the traffic pattern or return for another landing by joining the downwind leg. Related Topics Basics of Helicopter Flight Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook


Helicopter Climbs
	Helicopter Climbs As in an airplane, you must add power to maintain a stable, constant-rate climb in a helicopter. Pulling back on the cyclic will initially convert some of your speed into extra altitude, but unless you add power, eventually you'll settle into cruising flight again, but at a lower airspeed. In fact, if you apply too much aft cyclic without also increasing power, the helicopter will decelerate and pass out of effective translational lift and enter a rapid descent. Basic Considerations Keep the following considerations in mind as you climb: • Use the collective to control power and the rate of the climb. • Monitor engine instruments closely to ensure that you stay within operating limits. • Maintain attitude and 60 knots airspeed by looking out to the horizon. Focusing on a point too close to the nose makes it difficult to maintain the proper aircraft attitude. • Use the cyclic to control airspeed (and the helicopter's attitude). Use the anti-torque pedals to establish a crab angle to fly a constant ground track. • Use the anti-torque pedals to maintain trim, or coordinated flight. A slip or skid severely degrades climb performance. Leveling Off To level off from a climb, start decreasing collective about 50 ft (15 m) below the altitude at which you want to level off. Add right anti-torque pedal as you decrease torque to the cruise setting (about 80 percent torque). Use the cyclic to maintain cruising airspeed. You will need to add some aft cyclic to maintain a constant airspeed as you reduce collective. As you increase collective, you must add some forward cyclic to maintain airspeed. Related Topics Basics of Helicopter Flight Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook


Helicopter Straight-And-Level Flight
	Helicopter Straight-And-Level Flight As in an airplane, straight-and-level flight in a helicopter means the aircraft maintains a constant airspeed, altitude, and heading. Procedure To practice straight-and-level flight, follow this basic procedure: • Climb to at least 500 ft (150 m) AGL. • Maintain a constant altitude by raising or lowering the collective. • As you increase or decrease collective, use the anti-torque pedals to maintain coordinated flight. If you add power, add left pedal. If you decrease power, add right pedal. • Use the cyclic to maintain a level pitch attitude. To correct for wind drift, use the anti-torque pedals to turn the helicopter slightly into the wind to establish the appropriate crab angle. • Remember to anticipate and coordinate control inputs. Moving any flight control requires coordinated use of the other flight controls. Related Topics Basics of Helicopter Flight Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook


Helicopter Turns
	Helicopter Turns In cruising flight, turning a helicopter is much like turning an airplane. You must bank the aircraft to deflect some of the rotor's lift to the side. This horizontal component of lift pulls the helicopter around in the turn. Use the anti-torque pedals only to keep the helicopter in trim, or coordinated flight. Use the anti-torque pedals to turn only when you're in a hover. Procedure Follow this basic procedure for performing level turns: • From straight-and-level flight, look in the direction of the turn to check for other traffic above, below, and at your altitude. • Locate a checkpoint on the horizon to act as a guidepost for the completion of the turn. A practice turn normally involves a 90-degree change in heading. • Apply slight left or right pressure on the cyclic. Do not use the anti-torque pedals to assist the turn. • When you reach the angle of bank you want to maintain, hold the cyclic steady. • Maintain a constant pitch attitude by applying slight aft collective pressure as you establish the bank. In steep turns, you'll need to increase collective a bit more. This effect is similar to what happens in an airplane in bank. Some of the lift produced by the wings is deflected sideways to turn the airplane. To maintain altitude, a pilot must add power or adjust the aircraft's pitch attitude to produce more total lift during the turn. • To return to straight-and-level flight, you must start rolling out of the turn a few degrees early. Lead the turn by one-half to one-third of the bank angle. For example, if you're using a 30-degree bank, start rolling out of the turn 10–15 degrees ahead of the target heading. • To roll out of the turn, apply cyclic pressure opposite the bank. As the helicopter levels, neutralize the cyclic to avoid entering a turn in the opposite direction. You must also apply slight aft cyclic and down collective to keep the helicopter from climbing as you roll out of the turn. • Throughout the maneuver, use the anti-torque pedals only to maintain coordinated flight. Don't try to increase or decrease the rate of turn by using the pedals. Related Topics Basics of Helicopter Flight Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook


Helicopter Descents
	Helicopter Descents To descend at a constant airspeed and steady rate, you must decrease power. Don't push the helicopter's nose down. Pushing the cyclic will initially cause the helicopter to accelerate and descend, but unless you reduce power by lowering collective, you'll end up in a high-speed dive, not a steady descent. To begin the descent, smoothly decrease collective. Anticipate the need for right pedal as you decrease torque. The nose also drops as you lower the collective, so remember that you'll need to add a little aft cyclic to maintain the helicopter's pitch attitude. Don't add too much aft cyclic, however. Otherwise, the aircraft will climb or remain in level flight. In fact, if you add too much aft cyclic, the aircraft will decelerate and drop out of effective translational lift, and the helicopter will drop rapidly at a low airspeed. Basic Considerations Keep the following considerations in mind as you descend: • Use the collective to control power and the rate of the descent. • Monitor engine instruments closely to ensure that you stay within operating limits. • Maintain attitude and airspeed by looking out to the horizon. Focusing on a point too close to the nose makes it difficult to maintain the proper aircraft attitude. • Use the cyclic to control airspeed (and the helicopter's attitude). Use the anti-torque pedals to maintain heading or to establish a crab angle to fly a constant ground track, as appropriate. • Use the anti-torque pedals to maintain trim, or coordinated flight. A slip or skid increases the rate of descent. Leveling Off Plan to start leveling off at an altitude that's about 10 percent of your indicated rate of descent. For example, to level off from a typical 500 fpm descent, start increasing collective about 50 ft (15 m) above the altitude at which you want to level off. Add left anti-torque pedal as you increase torque to the cruise setting (about 80 percent torque). Use the cyclic to maintain cruising airspeed. Apply forward cyclic to increase speed, aft cyclic to slow down. Remember to coordinate cyclic movements with the appropriate collective and pedal inputs. Related Topics Basics of Helicopter Flight Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook


Helicopter Landings
	Helicopter Landings To land a helicopter, reverse the procedure for a normal takeoff. That is, fly a normal traffic pattern and approach, enter a hover at about 3 ft (1 m) above the ground, and then slowly and smoothly lower the aircraft to the ground. General Procedure Here are some general tips to help you land a helicopter. For the specific procedures to follow when flying the Bell 206B JetRanger III, see the topic "Bell 206B JetRanger III: Landings" in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. • Review the landing checklist. • Fly a modified traffic pattern, that avoids the flow of fixed-wing traffic. Following this procedure helps you establish good habits, and makes it easier to achieve smooth, consistent landings. • A typical landing pattern involves flying the downwind leg at 500 ft (150 m) at 100 knots. Turn to the base leg and then descend to 300 ft (90 m) at 60 knots. Turn final at 300 ft (90 m). Maintain 60 knots. A descent angle of 10–12 degrees provides good obstacle clearance and helps you keep the landing area in sight. • Continue the approach at 60 knots. When the rate of closure to the landing spot begins to speed up, apply gentle aft cyclic pressure to start slowing down. As you decelerate, anticipate the need for up collective pressure to maintain altitude. You'll also need to add left pedal pressure as you increase collective. Transition to a 3-ft (1 m) hover over the landing spot. • Remember, during the first half of the approach, decrease power by lowering the collective. During the second half of the approach you should gradually increase power by smoothly raising the collective. The most up collective is required as airspeed drops to 10–15 knots. The goal is to arrive at the 3-ft hover with hover power set. • From the hover, ease the collective down a slight amount. Anticipate the need to add right pedal pressure. • Stop any drift by applying small, smooth pressures to the cyclic. If you start to drift, stop downward movement by applying slight up collective pressure. Do not, however, lift back up to 3 ft (1 m) each time you drift. Just stop the downward movement until you compensate for drift. • Looking out at the horizon, keep lowering the helicopter until you make ground contact. After the skids touch down, continue moving the collective down slowly to transfer the aircraft's weight to the skids. Keep using small, smooth inputs on the cyclic to prevent drift as the helicopter settles. • Make sure the helicopter is stable as you move the collective to the full down position. Move the anti-torque pedals slightly to confirm that the helicopter is firmly seated on the ground. Related Topics Basics of Helicopter Flight Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook


Autorotation
	Autorotation Autorotation in a helicopter is the equivalent of a power-off glide in an airplane. Pilots practice autorotations so they can land safely if the engine fails in flight. During autorotation, the engine is disengaged from the rotor and does not provide power to turn the main rotor. That energy comes instead from the force of the air flowing up through the main rotor as the helicopter descends and the inertia of the main rotor. Rotor RPM is the most important consideration during autorotation. The spinning rotor provides all the lift that stabilizes the descent and stores the energy used to cushion the landing. If rotor RPM drops too low, the helicopter effectively loses its wings. General Procedure Although flying autorotations to touchdown requires great skill and practice, the basic sequence of actions to take is short and simple: • Lower the collective immediately to preserve rotor RPM. • Use the anti-torque pedals to maintain coordinated flight. Descending in a slip or a skid severely degrades glide performance. • Use the cyclic to establish the pitch attitude that will establish and maintain the correct airspeed—60 knots. • Find and turn toward a suitable emergency landing spot and, if possible, turn into the wind. Flying the Autorotation When you are established in the autorotation, keep the following considerations in mind: • If the engine fails lower the collective smoothly and immediately to the full-down position to preserve and maintain rotor RPM. Don't jam the collective down, however. Abruptly lowering collective can cause mast bumping and unload the rotor, leading to a low-G situation and low rotor RPM, and the helicopter will develop a high sink rate. • At 75–50 ft, apply gentle aft cyclic to establish about a 10-degree nose-up attitude until approximately 15 ft (5 m) above the ground, then after ground speed is reduced, apply forward cyclic to establish a level attitude and cushion the landing by adding collective pitch as required. To maintain heading, you'll need to add left pedal as you apply collective pitch to overcome the drag from the transmission. • Make sure you land with the helicopter level and with little or no forward speed or drift. • After ground contact, center and hold the cyclic still. Gently lower the collective. Moving the cyclic at this point can cause the rotor and tail boom to strike the surface. • Remember this sequence: Flare, pitch, level, and cushion. Common Errors Autorotation requires a delicate touch and precise timing. Here are some common mistakes: • Starting the flare too high. The rotor may run out of energy before you settle to the ground, resulting in a hard landing. • Starting the flare too low. The touchdown speed will be too high, possibly damaging the skids or causing an upset after the helicopter touches down. • Applying up collective pressure too early. The main rotor RPM drops quickly and the rotor doesn't have enough energy to cushion the landing. • Applying up collective pressure too late. The aircraft touches down fast and hard. It may bounce or float, and then settle to the ground with drift. • Touchdown in a nose-up attitude. At touchdown, the helicopter pitches forward. The skids could dig in and cause the helicopter to flip over. • Touchdown with the helicopter yawing. The side force may cause the helicopter to roll over at touchdown. • Leveling off too soon or too fast. The helicopter will accelerate and be moving forward too fast at touchdown. Related Topics Basics of Helicopter Flight Operating Helicopter Flight Controls Controlling the Helicopter With a Joystick Bell 206B JetRanger III Operating Handbook


The Flight Environment: Introduction
	The Flight Environment: Introduction When pilots talk about "the flight environment" they're referring to the airports they operate from and the airspace through which they fly. This section of the Ground School explains the basics of operating on and around airports and introduces some important "rules of the road." You'll find more detailed and complete information about these subjects in such official FAA publications as the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM), the "Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge" and other advisory circulars, and the FARs. Related Topics The Airport Environment Controlled Airspace Uncontrolled Airspace  Parts of the FARs


The Airport Environment
	The Airport Environment Most people think of John F. Kennedy International Airport (JFK) in New York or Heathrow (LHR) in London when they think of airports. But the vast majority of airports throughout the world are small, single strips of pavement or grass that serve general aviation. For example, in the U.S. approximately 14,000 airports appear in Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) listings but fewer than 700 have control towers. To operate safely and efficiently at an airport, pilots follow a strict set of rules and procedures. A standard set of markings, signs, and lights, much like those used on highways, also helps keep traffic moving safely, even if there's no control tower directing traffic. Types of Airports Airports are divided into two basic categories: • A controlled airport has an operating control tower. Controllers manage the sequence of traffic and issue clearances to take off and land. Airports with operating control towers are usually located within Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace. The basic rules for operating at an airport with a control tower are contained in FARs 91.131, 91.130, and 91.129.  • An uncontrolled airport doesn't have an operating tower. Pilots follow specific regulations and procedures and fly a designated traffic pattern to maintain a safe, orderly flow of traffic. Uncontrolled airports are usually located in Class G airspace, and the basic rules for operating at them are contained in FAR 91.126. Keep in mind that an airport with a tower is controlled only when the tower is operating. Many airports have part-time control towers that shut down at night. The airport usually remains open, but when the tower is closed, the airport is an uncontrolled airport. Related Topics The Traffic Pattern Runway Orientation and Numbers Airports in Class B Airspace (FAR 91.131) Airports in Class C Airspace (FAR 91.130) Airports in Class D Airspace (FAR 91.129) Airports in Class E Airspace (FAR 91.127) Airports in Class G Airspace (FAR 91.126)


The Traffic Pattern
	The Traffic Pattern To maintain a smooth flow of traffic in the vicinity of an airport, airplanes fly a traffic pattern. The traffic pattern, normally flown at 1,000 ft (305 m) above ground level (AGL), is a rectangular course with the runway as one side of the rectangle. Unless the traffic pattern indicators or published airport procedures indicate otherwise, you should make all turns to the left while flying a traffic pattern. A basic landing pattern has three legs: • Downwind: The first leg is flown parallel to the runway opposite the direction of landing. The distance from the runway depends on the type of aircraft you're flying, but generally you should fly the downwind leg 0.5 to 0.75 mi (1.0–1.5 km) from the runway. Start your descent when you're abeam—directly across from—the point on the runway where you want to touch down. • Base: This leg is oriented 90 degrees to the runway. Turn to the base leg when the end of the runway you're landing on is at about a 45-degree angle behind your wing. • Final: The final leg is aligned with the runway centerline in the direction of landing. In other words, you're flying toward the runway during final. Entering the Traffic Pattern As a general rule, you should enter the traffic pattern on a 45-degree angle, flying toward the center of the runway you intend to land on. The goal as you enter the pattern is to merge smoothly with other traffic. Keep these basic points in mind: • Keep a sharp lookout for other aircraft. Most midair collisions occur near an airport in good weather. • Make sure that you complete the descent to traffic pattern altitude before you enter the downwind leg. Many midair collisions occur when an aircraft descends onto another airplane that's already in the traffic pattern. • If you can't determine which runway and traffic pattern is in use before you approach the airport, fly over the middle of airport at least 500 ft (150 m) above traffic pattern altitude. Look for the wind sock and traffic pattern indicators. Then enter the traffic pattern by flying a safe distance from the airport and setting up on a 45-degree entry leg. Leaving the Traffic Pattern You fly a traffic pattern when you depart an airport, too. Immediately after takeoff, you are on the upwind leg of the pattern. You should adjust your flight path to track the extended centerline of the runway. • If you plan to leave the pattern generally opposite the direction of takeoff, fly straight ahead until you're about 0.5 mi (0.8 km) from the departure end of the runway and within 300 ft (90 m) of pattern altitude. Then turn 90 degrees to the crosswind leg. Make this turn in the direction of the traffic pattern (usually left). Continue climbing to traffic pattern altitude and turn downwind 0.5 to 0.75 mi (1.0–1.5 km) from the runway. • If you plan to leave the pattern in the general direction of takeoff, continue climbing to pattern altitude and then turn 45 degrees in the direction of the traffic pattern (usually left). At a safe distance from the airport, turn on course and continue climbing to cruise altitude. Related Topics Avoiding Wake Turbulence Runway Orientation and Numbers Operations at Controlled Airports Operations at Uncontrolled Airports


Avoiding Wake Turbulence
	Avoiding Wake Turbulence Aircraft, like boats, leave wakes behind them. Large, heavy aircraft generate strong wing tip vortices that can almost instantly roll a smaller aircraft upside down. Pilots must therefore know how to avoid wake turbulence, especially during takeoff or landing and in the airport traffic pattern. How Vortices Are Produced An aircraft generates vortices whenever its wings are creating lift. In fact, vortices are the primary source of induced drag. Each wing creates a wing tip vortex caused by relatively high-pressure air below the wing swirling up and around the wing tip toward the area of relatively low pressure on top of the wing. The vortices circulate outward, upward, and around the wing tips. The left vortex (as seen from behind the aircraft) rotates clockwise; the right vortex rotates counter-clockwise. These horizontal tornadoes then fan out behind the aircraft, just like a ship's wake. Vortices also sink at a rate of several hundred feet per minute, usually settling at an altitude 500–1000 ft (153–305 m) below the generating aircraft's altitude. Vortices generated close to the ground tend to move sideways at 2–3 knots in calm winds. A crosswind pushes the downwind vortex out of the area a little faster, but it tends to keep the upwind vortex in the area. Staying Out of Harm's Way To avoid wake turbulence, follow these basic rules: • When taking off behind a large aircraft, make sure you lift off before the point at which the large aircraft rotated. Climb at an angle that keeps you above the larger aircraft's flight path. • When landing behind a larger aircraft, make sure you touch down beyond the point where the larger aircraft's nose wheel touched the runway. • In flight, make sure you stay at least 1,000 feet (305 m) below (or well above) and at least five miles behind any large aircraft that crosses your flight path. • When operating from parallel runways, be especially alert for crosswinds that may push vortices onto your runway. Related Topics The Traffic Pattern Runway Orientation and Numbers Airports in Class B Airspace (FAR 91.131) Airports in Class C Airspace (FAR 91.130) Airports in Class D Airspace (FAR 91.129) Airports in Class E Airspace (FAR 91.127) Airports in Class G Airspace (FAR 91.126)


Runway Orientation and Numbers
	Runway Orientation and Numbers Runways are laid out to take advantage of prevailing winds so that most of the time aircraft can take off and land into the wind. Numbers Runways are named according to the direction they face, relative to magnetic north. For example, a runway aligned with a magnetic heading of 90 degrees (east) is called runway 09. The number is rounded to the nearest 10 degrees and the trailing zero is dropped. Runways have two ends, so each takeoff and landing surface is actually two runways. For example, runway 09 represents the takeoff and landing surface that's pointed east. If you take off or land on the same runway surface but from the opposite direction, you're using runway 27 (its magnetic heading is 270 degrees, or west). Some airports have parallel runways to expedite takeoffs and landings. The same runway-naming convention applies, but the letter "L" or "R" is added to indicate the left or right runway. For example, parallel runways aligned with a magnetic heading of 210 degrees are designated 21L and 21R. A few busy airports have three parallel runways. The middle runway has the letter "C," for "center," added to its numerical designation. Related Topics Runway Markings Taxiways Runway and Taxiway Lights


Runway Markings
	Runway Markings Runways come in three basic types: • A visual runway is used only for VFR flights. No instrument approach procedure is associated with a visual runway. A visual runway usually has a threshold marking, a runway number, and stripes designating the centerline and the runway edges. It may also have fixed-distance markers—two large, white rectangles on either side of the centerline about 1,000 ft (305 m) from the threshold. • A nonprecision runway supports both VFR and IFR traffic. As indicated by its name, this type of runway is served by a nonprecision instrument approach, usually a VOR or NDB approach. In addition to the markings used on a visual runway, a nonprecision runway also has threshold markings. • A precision runway supports a precision approach, usually an ILS. Precision runways have all the marks found on a nonprecision runway, plus touchdown zone markings. These marks appear at 500-ft (150 m) increments, beginning 500 ft from the threshold. These additional marks help pilots make the transition from instrument to visual flight and define the proper touchdown point for an aircraft flying an ILS. Overruns and Displaced Thresholds Some runways have overrun or blast pad areas. These aren't strong enough to support an airplane and are marked by large chevrons. You might also see a series of arrows pointing to the beginning of a runway. They indicate a displaced threshold. You can use the area ahead of the displaced threshold for taxiing and takeoff, but landings are prohibited on this part of the runway. Related Topics Taxiways  Runway Orientation and Numbers


Taxiways
	Taxiways Taxiways are an airport's on and off ramps. They lead to and from the runways and the airport parking area, called the ramp. At most airports, taxiways are designated by letter. They're marked by yellow lines and standard signs. • Double yellow lines mark the boundary between areas under jurisdiction of ATC and the parking areas. • A single solid yellow line marks the taxiway centerline. As you taxi, keep the nose wheel of your airplane on the centerline at all times to help make sure your wings remain clear of obstructions. • Two parallel dashed yellow lines followed by two parallel solid yellow lines indicate a hold line. A hold line marks the intersection of a taxiway and a runway. Hold lines stretch across the width of a taxiway. Do not cross a hold line onto a runway until you receive a clearance from the tower. After landing, turn onto a taxiway and make sure that all parts of your aircraft have crossed the hold line before you stop and ask for clearance to the ramp. Related Topics Runway and Taxiway Lights Runway Orientation and Numbers Runway Markings


Operations at Controlled Airports
	Operations at Controlled Airports An airport with an operating control tower is a controlled airport. At a controlled airport, air traffic controllers sequence traffic in and out of the airport and direct ground traffic on the airport surface. Airport Rules Airports with operating control towers are usually located within Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace. The basic rules for operating at an airport with a control tower are contained in FARs 91.131, 91.130, and 91.129. In addition to these basic rules, pilots should follow the detailed operating procedures specified in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) and FAA advisory circulars. General Operating Procedures You follow the same basic procedures for departing or arriving at a controlled airport. • If the airport has an Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS), broadcast, listen to it. The ATIS gives you latest weather, altimeter setting, runways in use, and other important information. • If you're arriving, contact the tower, giving your position and intentions. If ATIS is available, remember to tell the controller that you have the current ATIS information. Enter the traffic pattern according to the tower's instructions. Remember that you aren't cleared to land until you hear the words "cleared to land." • If you're arriving, leave the runway according to the tower's instructions and contact ground control when advised for permission to taxi to the ramp. • If you're departing, contact ground control for permission to taxi to the active runway. If ATIS isn't available at the airport, ground control issues the current wind, altimeter setting, and other airport information with your taxi instructions. After taxiing to the active runway and completing your pre-takeoff checks, contact the local controller on the tower frequency for permission to take off. • If you're departing, after takeoff leave the airport's controlled airspace. When you're well clear of that airspace, you can change to another ATC frequency, contact an FSS, and so forth without asking for permission from the tower. Related Topics Departing a Controlled Airport Under VFR Arriving at a Controlled Airport Under VFR Departing a Controlled Airport Under IFR Arriving at a Controlled Airport Under IFR Operations at Uncontrolled Airports The Traffic Pattern


Departing a Controlled Airport Under VFR
	Departing a Controlled Airport Under VFR Use the following basic operating procedure when departing under VFR from a controlled airport: • If the airport has an Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) broadcast, listen to it. The ATIS gives you latest weather, altimeter setting, runways in use, and other important information. • When you're ready to taxi, contact ground control for clearance to the departure runway. If you have received the ATIS broadcast, make sure you tell the ground controller that you have the current information. You should also tell the ground controller your intended direction of flight. Finally, make sure you acknowledge the controller's instructions by repeating the number of the runway you're cleared to use. • When you reach the runup area, make sure you stop well clear of the entry to the runway. Perform the final pre-takeoff checks. • When you're ready for takeoff, move up to, but not across, the runway hold line and contact the "local controller" on the tower frequency. The local controller is responsible for the runways and the airspace around the airport. Ask that controller for permission to take off. • The tower controller will issue one of several instructions: "Cleared for takeoff," "Hold short," or "Taxi into position and hold." If you're cleared for takeoff, taxi onto the runway and take off without undue delay. If you're told to hold short, stay where you are—and make sure you repeat the phrase "holding short" so the controller knows you're going to stay put. If you're told to taxi into position and hold, taxi onto the runway, line up with the centerline, and stop. The controller will clear you for takeoff when the runway is clear. • Make sure you hear a runway number and the words "cleared for takeoff" before you start down the runway. If you don't hear the exact words "cleared for takeoff," you haven't received permission to depart. After Takeoff After takeoff, follow the departure path the tower cleared you to use. You can depart straight out or fly part of the traffic pattern to leave the area. Monitor the tower frequency until you're well clear of the Class D airspace or change to the appropriate departure control frequency when the tower control tells you to switch. You don't need to ask for permission to change radio frequencies after you leave Class D airspace. Asking for a frequency change just clogs already congested radio channels. Related Topics Arriving at a Controlled Airport Under VFR Departing a Controlled Airport Under IFR Arriving at a Controlled Airport Under IFR Operations at Uncontrolled Airports The Traffic Pattern Airports in Class B Airspace (FAR 91.131) Airports in Class C Airspace (FAR 91.130) Airports in Class D Airspace (FAR 91.129)


Arriving at a Controlled Airport Under VFR
	Arriving at a Controlled Airport Under VFR Use the following basic operating procedure when arriving at a controlled airport under VFR. Remember, you must establish contact with and in some cases receive a clearance from the control tower or other appropriate ATC facility before you enter the Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace surrounding a controlled airport. • If the airport has an Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) broadcast, listen to it. The ATIS gives you latest weather, altimeter setting, runways in use, and other important information. • Contact the tower when you're about 15 nm (28 km) from the airport. Give your identification, location, and intentions. If you have received the ATIS broadcast, make sure you tell the controller that you have the current information. The tower will give you instructions to approach the airport and probably ask you to report as you enter the traffic pattern. If the airport does not have ATIS, the tower will tell you the current weather, altimeter setting, and active runway. When you acknowledge the tower's instructions, make sure you repeat the number of the runway that the controller has told you to expect to use. • When you report entering the traffic pattern, the tower controller will clear you to land, issue instructions to follow other aircraft in the traffic pattern, or tell you to continue flying the traffic pattern to allow aircraft to depart the active runway. • The controller will issue you a clearance to land at the appropriate time. Make sure you hear and acknowledge the words "cleared to land." If you don't hear those exact words and the number of a specific runway, you haven't received a landing clearance. • After landing, exit the runway at the first available taxiway or according to the tower's instructions. The tower will tell you when to switch to ground control. Make sure you taxi all the way across the hold line on the taxiway before you stop to contact ground control. • After receiving instructions from ground control, taxi to the ramp for parking. • If you filed a VFR flight plan, don't forget to call the FSS to close it. Make sure you do this as soon as you land. Search and rescue operations begin 30 minutes after your scheduled arrival time if you don't close the flight plan. Remember, the folks in the tower don't close VFR flight plans automatically, and it's bad form to ask them to handle the chore. Related Topics Departing a Controlled Airport Under VFR Arriving at a Controlled Airport Under IFR Operations at Uncontrolled Airports The Traffic Pattern Airports in Class B Airspace (FAR 91.131) Airports in Class C Airspace (FAR 91.130) Airports in Class D Airspace (FAR 91.129)


Departing a Controlled Airport Under IFR
	Departing a Controlled Airport Under IFR Departing from a controlled airport under IFR is much like taking off under VFR— with one important difference. You must file an IFR flight plan and obtain a specific clearance from ATC before taking off. IFR Clearance To receive your IFR clearance, contact clearance delivery, if it's available, or ground control. Tell the controller your aircraft identification and your destination; for example, "Oakland clearance, Centurion 3743Y, IFR to Long Beach." The controller will reply with a series of instructions that typically include: • Your aircraft ID and the "clearance limit"—the point to which you're cleared to fly. Usually the clearance limit is your destination airport. • A standard instrument departure (SID) route or an initial heading or course to fly. This part of the clearance is designed to get you from the airport to the en route phase of flight. • A specific route to your destination. Often this route is what you asked for when you filed the IFR flight plan. If that's the case, the clearance will include the words "as filed." If ATC needs to change your proposed route, the controller gives you specific instructions. • An initial altitude limit, if that limit is not part of the SID you've been assigned, and an initial cruising altitude. • The frequency to use to contact departure control. • A transponder code called a "squawk." A typical IFR clearance might be something like this: "Centurion 3743Y, cleared to the Spokane International Airport via the Kent Three departure, then as filed. Maintain 11,000. Departure control frequency 119.2, squawk 4732." Related Topics Arriving at a Controlled Airport Under IFR Operations at Controlled Airports Operations at Uncontrolled Airports Airports in Class B Airspace (FAR 91.131) Airports in Class C Airspace (FAR 91.130) Airports in Class D Airspace (FAR 91.129)


Arriving at a Controlled Airport Under IFR
	Arriving at a Controlled Airport Under IFR Follow the same basic procedure as when arriving under VFR, but you'll be under the supervision and direction of approach control once you begin your descent into the terminal area. Because you're operating on a specific IFR clearance from ATC, you don't have to worry about getting permission to enter controlled airspace. Here are the basic steps for an IFR arrival: • If the airport has an Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) broadcast, listen to it before contacting approach control. On your initial call to approach control, tell the controller that you have the latest ATIS. • Approach control will usually issue you vectors—turns and headings—that will steer you to the final approach fix for the approach and runway in use. At some point, you'll hear the magic words "cleared for the approach." That clearance allows you to fly the published procedure, changing course and altitude as necessary without further instructions. • Approach control will tell you when to contact the tower. From that point on, arriving is about the same as flying in under VFR—you still need a clearance to land from the tower. • Arriving under IFR does have one advantage. If the airport has an operating control tower, the controllers close your flight plan when you land. You don't have to call the FSS. Related Topics Departing a Controlled Airport Under VFR Arriving at a Controlled Airport Under VFR Airports in Class B Airspace (FAR 91.131) Airports in Class C Airspace (FAR 91.130) Airports in Class D Airspace (FAR 91.129)


Operations at Uncontrolled Airports
	Operations at Uncontrolled Airports Any airport that does not have an operating control tower is an uncontrolled airport. That doesn't mean that you can zoom into the airport any way you like, however. At an uncontrolled airport you are responsible for following the appropriate traffic pattern and fitting into the traffic flow. The FARs and the AIM contain specific rules and procedures that you're expected to follow. For more information, see the topic "The Traffic Pattern" in this section of Pilot's Help. Announce Yourself If your airplane has a radio, you should listen for other traffic and announce your position as you approach the airport and fly the traffic pattern. Use the common traffic advisory frequency (CTAF) printed on the chart or published in the official Airport/Facility Directory. Keep in mind, however, that pilots aren't required to have or use a radio at uncontrolled airports. Looking out the window is always the best way to avoid becoming a midair collision statistic. Related Topics The Traffic Pattern Airports in Class G Airspace (FAR 91.126)


Airport Lighting
	Airport Lighting Airport lights do more than mark the edges of the runway. They help pilots transition from instrument to visual flight during the final stages of an instrument approach, help pilots identify airports, and even guide aircraft from the runway to the ramp. Prior to flying at night or in low-visibility conditions, you should check the availability and type of lighting systems at the airports along your route of flight. Rotating Beacons Pilots identify airports at night by looking for rotating beacons. Civil airport beacons flash alternating white and green lights. Military airports flash two white lights followed by a green light. Seaplane landing areas and lighted heliports use different sequences. If the rotating beacon is turned on during the day, it usually indicates that IFR conditions prevail, but this isn't always the case. TIP: You can see airport beacons, runway and approach lights, and other types of airport lighting in Flight Simulator. To see these effects, set the time to night. For more information, see the topic "Changing the Date, Time, or Season" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Pilot's Help. Related Topics Runway and Taxiway Lights Approach Lighting Systems VASI and PAPI Systems Changing the Date, Time, or Season


Runway and Taxiway Lights
	Runway and Taxiway Lights Runway thresholds are marked by green lights at the landing end and red lights at the departure end. White lights define runway edges. At a runway served by a precision instrument approach such as an instrument landing system (ILS), the white edge lights alternate with red lights starting 1,000 ft from the end of the runway and then change to all red for the last 500 ft. Taxiways are marked by blue lights. Some taxiways have green lights or reflectors down the centerline. Most major airports also light the yellow taxiway and red runway signs at night. TIP: You can see airport beacons, runway and approach lights, and other types of airport lighting in Flight Simulator. To see these effects, set the time to night. For more information, see the topic "Changing the Date, Time, or Season" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Pilot's Help. Related Topics Approach Lighting Systems VASI and PAPI Systems Changing the Date, Time, or Season


Approach Lighting Systems
	Approach Lighting Systems Runways served by instrument approach procedures usually have approach lights to help pilots identify the runway environment during low-visibility conditions. For example, a pilot flying an ILS may break out of the clouds as low as 200 ft (61 m) above ground level (AGL). Approach lights greatly increase a pilot's chances of seeing the runway and making a safe landing. Types of Approach Lights The AIM provides details on each type of approach lighting system (ALS) currently in use. The systems have the same basic components: • Green threshold lights mark the beginning of the runway. • A long line of lead-in lights aligned with the runway centerline. The lead-in lights extend from the end of the runway into the approach area. Some systems include sequenced flashing lights, called "strobes" or the "rabbit," that look like a ball of light moving rapidly toward the runway. • Alignment bars perpendicular to the lead-in lights that help the pilot quickly determine if the airplane is properly aligned with the runway. • A VASI or PAPI system to show the pilot if the airplane is on the proper descent path. TIP: You can see airport beacons, runway and approach lights, and other types of airport lighting in Flight Simulator. To see these effects, set the time to night. For more information, see the topic "Changing the Date, Time, or Season" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Pilot's Help. Related Topics VASI and PAPI Systems Runway and Taxiway Lights Changing the Date, Time, or Season


VASI and PAPI Systems
	VASI and PAPI Systems Many runways are equipped with lights that help pilots determine if they're on the proper descent path during the final stages of approach and landing. The most common system is the VASI, or Visual Approach Slope Indicator. VASIs come in several varieties, but a typical system includes two sets of light bars placed on the left side of the runway, one nearer the threshold than the other. Lenses split the light into red and white beams. • If you're approaching the runway on the proper glide path, usually about a three-degree slope, you see a red light above a white light. Remember the rhyme: "Red over white, you're all right." • If you're above the proper glide path, you see two white lights. • If you see two red lights, you're below the proper glide path. Remember the rhyme: "Red over red, you're dead." PAPI Systems Many airports use a PAPI (precision approach path indicator) instead of a VASI. The PAPI uses the same basic principle as a VASI, but the white and red lights are arranged in a single row. You will see the following indications as you approach the runway: • If you are on the proper glide path (usually three degrees), you will see two white lights on the left side of the PAPI light bar and two red lights on the right side. • If you are slightly above the proper glide path, you will see three white lights on the left and one red light on the right. • If you are well above the proper glide path, you will see four white lights. • If you are slightly below the proper glide path, you will see one white light on the left and three red lights on the right. • If you are well below the proper glide path, you will see four red lights. TIP: You can see airport beacons, runway and approach lights, and other types of airport lighting in Flight Simulator. To see these effects, set the time to night. For more information, see the topic "Changing the Date, Time, or Season" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Pilot's Help. Related Topics Runway and Taxiway Lights Approach Lighting Systems Changing the Date, Time, or Season


Controlled Airspace
	Controlled Airspace In the U.S., the National Airspace System is divided into controlled and uncontrolled airspace. Controlled airspace is divided into five classifications, each with a letter code that conforms to international standards: • Class A airspace is high-altitude airspace, used mostly by the airlines and military. • Class B airspace surrounds major airports. • Class C airspace surrounds airports with substantial airline or military traffic. • Class D airspace surrounds airports with an operating control tower. • Class E airspace encloses airways—routes between VORs—and includes airspace around airports that have an instrument approach but do not have operating control towers. In other words, it's controlled airspace that isn't part of Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace. It's a Matter of Weather The distinction between controlled and uncontrolled is more closely related to weather than to air traffic control. Simply put, when the ceiling and visibility are less than the minimums specified for VFR flight, you can't fly in controlled airspace unless you've filed an IFR flight plan and received a clearance from ATC. If weather is good enough to allow operations under VFR, you can fly in most controlled airspace without talking to controllers. In fact, in the U.S. you can fly coast-to-coast without talking to ATC—or even having a radio on board. Of course, if you fly into the busy airspace around major airports (Class B or Class C airspace) or operate from an airport with a control tower (Class D airspace), you must communicate with ATC regardless of weather conditions. Related Topics Uncontrolled Airspace  Airports in Class B Airspace (FAR 91.131) Airports in Class C Airspace (FAR 91.130) Airports in Class D Airspace (FAR 91.129) Airports in Class E Airspace (FAR 91.127) Airports in Class G Airspace (FAR 91.126)


Uncontrolled Airspace
	Uncontrolled Airspace Uncontrolled airspace is designated as Class G airspace. Generally, the airspace over the entire continental United States is Class G below 1,200 ft (366 m) above ground level (AGL) except where Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace is present or at airports where Class E airspace begins at the surface. What Uncontrolled Means Although you can operate in uncontrolled airspace without a clearance from ATC, it's not the free-for-all that the name implies. You must still observe certain weather restrictions and the basic flight rules prescribed in the FARs. During daylight hours, while operating in Class G airspace below 1,200 ft (366 m) AGL, pilots must have at least 1 mi (1.6 km) flight visibility and must remain clear of clouds. At night, the same minimums used in controlled airspace apply. Related Topics Controlled Airspace Rules and Regulations


Human Factors
	Human Factors: Introduction You don't have to fly the latest jet fighter to experience G forces, vertigo, hypoxia, motion sickness, and other side effects of flight. Every pilot should understand these phenomena and know how to avoid or compensate for them. Pilots also bear the legal responsibility to avoid flying whenever they have a temporary condition that affects the safety of flight or whenever they cannot meet the standards of their medical certificate (FAR 61.53). This section of Pilot's Help is based in part on FAA AC-67-2, "Medical Handbook for Pilots" and AC-61-21A, "Flight Training Handbook." It provides background information and is not a substitute for consultation with an FAA-designated Aviation Medical Examiner (AME) or other physician. Related Topics Basic Medical Requirements G Forces Vertigo Operations During Medical Deficiency (FAR 61.53)


Basic Medical Requirements
	Basic Medical Requirements In the U.S., regulations require most pilots of powered aircraft to hold a medical certificate as well as a pilot certificate. Aviation Medical Examiners (AMEs), physicians certified by the FAA, issue medical certificates. An airline pilot must get a new medical certificate every six months and undergo a more rigorous examination than a private pilot, who must get a new certificate every two or three years, depending on age. General Standards AMEs evaluate your general health to check for conditions that might cause a medical emergency during flight, restrict your ability to operate the controls, or impair your ability to make quick decisions. The examination focuses on the correct function of vital organs and parts of the body most critical to flying, including the eyes, lungs, heart, ears, and the muscular and nervous systems. You don't have to be a perfect physical specimen. Some defects can be waived. For example, the FAA has issued restricted medical certificates to pilots who have only one eye, are deaf or hard-of-hearing, or are partially paralyzed. Disqualifying Conditions Epilepsy, heart trouble, and high blood pressure are among the conditions that can ground a pilot. Other problems, such as acute infections, anemia, and peptic ulcers may be only temporarily disqualifying. Corrected vision, dentures, and certain minor ailments generally aren't an obstacle to certification. The specific standards are described in the FARs. The Pilot's Responsibility Regulations require each pilot to determine his or her fitness for flight. They state that you may not act as a pilot when you have a known physical deficiency that would make you unable to meet the physical requirements for your medical certificate. In other words, if you wouldn't be able to pass the flight physical today, you shouldn't fly today. Related Topics G Forces Motion Sickness Vertigo Nighttime Vision Hypoxia Alcohol and Drugs Pilots: Required Certificates (FAR 61.3) Operations During Medical Deficiency (FAR 61.53)


G Forces
	G Forces When an aircraft climbs, turns, or changes speed, it experiences G forces—changes in apparent gravity. For example, a level turn with a 60-degree bank imposes a 2G load on an airplane and its occupants. Both they and the airplane seem to weigh twice as much as they do when at rest. Most maneuvers create only slight, brief G forces. Aerobatics, however, can impose strong, rapidly changing G forces typically ranging from 4–6 positive Gs to minus 3–4 Gs. Competitive aerobatics can produce even greater G loads. Such G loads are more than just uncomfortable—they can incapacitate a pilot who is not trained to handle them. Positive Gs Rapid pullups and steeply banked, level turns create positive Gs—forces acting in the direction of the pilot's feet. They displace blood and the body's organs toward the lower extremities. As the blood circulation to the brain decreases under positive Gs, the pilot's visual field narrows. If positive Gs increase, the pilot loses color vision and eventually loses consciousness. Negative Gs Rapid pushovers and "outside" aerobatic maneuvers create negative Gs—forces acting toward the pilot's head. Depending on forces involved and individual tolerance, a pilot may experience discomfort, headache, "redout" caused by excessive blood flow in the eyes, and even unconsciousness. Most people have a much lower tolerance for negative Gs than for positive Gs. Coping With Gs People adapt to the G forces of flight, so the best strategy for coping with high G loads is to practice aerobatic maneuvers, gradually building up to those that impose the highest G loads. Airshow and competitive aerobatic pilots fly regularly to maintain their G tolerance. They also maintain excellent overall fitness, which helps them handle the physical stress of aerobatic flight. Related Topics Motion Sickness Vertigo


Motion Sickness
	Motion Sickness Student pilots frequently experience an uneasiness often described as motion sickness. It is probably a result of anxiety, unfamiliarity, and the motion of the airplane. Even experienced pilots can suffer from occasional motion sickness, usually a mild discomfort that isn't a serious threat to their ability to control an aircraft. Of course, motion sickness can have serious repercussions even if it doesn't directly affect the pilot. An airplane full of airsick passengers is a very unpleasant place. Therefore all pilots should understand the causes of motion sickness and methods to relieve it. Causes of Motion Sickness Motion sickness is caused by continued stimulation of the tiny portion of the inner ear that controls the sense of balance. Turbulence, abrupt maneuvering, warm temperatures, anxiety, and lack of outside visual references can contribute to or exacerbate motion sickness. Symptoms The symptoms of motion sickness are progressive. First, you lose your appetite. Then saliva collects in your mouth and you begin to perspire freely. Eventually, you become nauseated and disoriented. Your head aches and you may vomit. If the air sickness becomes severe enough, you may become completely incapacitated. Coping With Motion Sickness If you are susceptible to airsickness, do not take the preventive drugs that are available over the counter or by prescription (unless, of course, you are a passenger). These medications may make you drowsy or depress your brain functions in other ways. Most motion sickness drugs cause a temporary deterioration of flying skills and the ability to perform other tasks demanding keen judgment. If you suffer from airsickness, open the air vents, loosen your clothing, use oxygen, keep your eyes on a point outside the airplane, hold your head still, and avoid abrupt maneuvers. Then land as soon as possible. And always keep a supply of airsickness bags close at hand. Related Topics Vertigo G Forces


Vertigo
	Vertigo Vertigo, also known as "spatial disorientation," is a state of temporary confusion resulting from misleading information sent to the brain by various sensory organs. Spatial disorientation occurs most often in instrument meteorological conditions created by rain, fog, clouds, smoke, or dark nights. It is aggravated by lack of recent instrument experience or training, unfamiliarity with the aircraft or flight situation, fear or worry, and excessive head movements. Causes of Vertigo Vertigo typically occurs when turns and other maneuvers can cause the vestibular system—a set of tubes and other sensory organs in the inner ear—to send conflicting signals about the aircraft's orientation and movement. Without visual references, the pilot quickly becomes disoriented—unable to tell whether the airplane is flying straight and level, turning, climbing, or descending. To avoid or overcome vertigo, a pilot must rely on the flight instruments to verify the aircraft's attitude and maintain control. Vertigo can occur whenever outside visual reference is temporarily lost—for example, while reading a chart, changing a radio frequency, looking for something inside the cockpit, switching fuel tanks, and other activities. Nearly all experienced pilots have had a brush with vertigo, usually minor and of short duration. Coping With Vertigo You can reduce the likelihood and severity of vertigo by: • Understanding the nature and causes of the condition. • Avoiding, if possible, the flight conditions which tend to cause vertigo. • Obtaining instrument flight instruction and maintaining proficiency. • Having faith in the instruments rather than believing your senses. • Avoiding sudden head movements, particularly when the aircraft is maneuvering. • Scanning all of the flight instruments. Be especially aware of the danger of shifting between the instrument panel and the out-the-window view when visibility is restricted. Related Topics Motion Sickness G Forces


Daytime Vision
	Daytime Vision Of all the senses, vision is the most important for safe flight. Pilots must be aware of several illusions that can cause problems during daylight and must understand the most effective way to scan for other aircraft. Daytime Illusions Different runway widths, changing terrain, lighting, and other factors, can trick the eye. Some of the common daytime illusions include: • Runway width illusion: A narrow runway can create the illusion that the aircraft is higher than it actually is. A pilot who does not recognize this illusion flies a lower approach, with the risk of striking objects along the approach path or landing short of the runway. A wide runway can have the opposite effect, with the risk of leveling out high and landing hard or overshooting the runway. • Runway and terrain slopes illusion: An up-sloping runway, up-sloping terrain, or both, can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is. A pilot who does not recognize this illusion flies a lower approach. A down-sloping runway, down-sloping terrain in the approach path, or both, can have the opposite effect. • Featureless terrain illusion: An absence of ground features, as when landing over water, dark areas, or snow, can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion flies a lower approach. Related Topics Scanning for Other Aircraft Nighttime Vision


Scanning for Other Aircraft
	Scanning for Other Aircraft Scanning the sky for other aircraft is a key factor in collision avoidance. Pilots must develop an effective scanning technique to cover the entire sky and divide attention between cockpit duties, checking the instruments, and watching for other traffic. Scan in Sectors Because the eyes can focus only on a narrow viewing area, effective scanning involves a series of short, regularly spaced eye movements that bring successive areas of the sky into the central visual field, which has the most acute vision. It's best to scan by • Moving the head and eyes in increments of 10 degrees or less. • Observing each area for at least one second. When flying under VFR, you should devote no more than 4 to 5 seconds to scanning the instrument panel for every 16 seconds scanning outside the cockpit. NOTE: To challenge your ability to detect and avoid other aircraft, you can add air traffic to Flight Simulator. For more information, see the topic "Displaying Dynamic Scenery" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Pilot's Help. Related Topics Daytime Vision Nighttime Vision Operating Near Other Aircraft Displaying Dynamic Scenery


Night Vision
	Nighttime Vision The human eye is optimized for daytime vision. At night, human vision is much less acute. Depth perception, of critical importance during landing, is also drastically reduced at night. Seeing in the Dark The human eye perceives light through special nerve cells called rods and cones arranged along the retina, the back surface of the eye. Cones, grouped in the center of the retina, are excellent at determining color. The rods, arranged around the outside of the retina, don't distinguish colors well, but they readily detect movement and are more sensitive in low light. In fact, the rods can still function in light just 1/5,000 the intensity at which the cones cease to function. They are 100,000 times as sensitive in the dark as they are in sunlight. However, rods need more time to adjust to darkness than the cones do to bright light. Your eyes become adapted to sunlight in 10 seconds, but they need 30 minutes to fully adjust to a dark night. Because the rods are grouped around the edges of the retina, the eye has a blind spot at night in the center of the field of view. Nighttime Illusions You must be especially aware of several potentially dangerous nighttime illusions, including • Autokinesis: Involuntary eye movements make a stationary light appear to move about if you stare at it for several seconds. Trying to use such a light as a reference to maintain aircraft attitude and direction can lead to a loss of control. • False horizon: If the horizon isn't distinct, the light from stars and ground objects can merge into one pattern. Without a stable horizon reference, a pilot may have difficulty maintaining the proper aircraft attitude. • Ground lighting illusions: You may mistake lights along a road, railroad, or other straight path for a runway. Bright runway and approach lights may make the runway appear closer than it really is. Scanning for Traffic at Night To take advantage of the rods' sensitivity at night, scan for traffic by looking slightly to the side of each area you want to see. Don't stare directly at the area; it will fall within the blind spot at the center of your field of view. TIP: You can practice night flying skills in Flight Simulator. For more information, see the topic "Changing the Date and Time" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Pilot's Help. Related Topics Daytime Vision Tips for Night Flying Changing the Date, Time, or Season


Tips for Night Flying
	Tips for Night Flying Night flying requires more preparation than flight during the day. Here are a few things to keep in mind: • Spend at least one-half hour in dim, preferably red, light prior to your flight. Do not go from a well-lit briefing room directly to your airplane and take off. • When taxiing around the airport pay special attention to staying on the taxiway centerline. • Always carry at least one flashlight. • Rely more on the flight instruments than you normally would during daytime flying. Night Landings Limited depth perception and nighttime illusions become most critical during landings. When landing at night remember that you have little depth perception in the darkness. Landing at an unfamiliar airport without the assistance of a visual approach slope indicator (VASI) or precision approach path indicator (PAPI) may be dangerous. Here are a few tips to help you make safe, smooth, night landings: • Fly the approach and landing using normal speeds. Many pilots tend to fly faster at night. • Whenever possible, use VASI systems to help you maintain the proper descent path on final approach. • To determine the proper point to begin the flare just before landing, continue the descent until the landing light reflects on the runway and skid marks and centerline stripes are clearly visible. If you're not using a landing light, start the flare when the runway lights at the far end of the runway first appear to be rising higher than the airplane. TIP: You can practice night flying skills in Flight Simulator. For more information, see the topic "Changing the Date and Time" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Pilot's Help. Related Topics Nighttime Vision Changing the Date, Time, or Season


Hypoxia
	Hypoxia Hypoxia—lack of oxygen—is the greatest single danger to a pilot at high altitudes. When a pilot inhales air at high altitudes, there isn't enough oxygen pressure to force adequate amounts of this vital gas through the membranes of the lungs into the bloodstream so that it can be carried to the tissues of the body. At sea level, a healthy person can extract enough oxygen from the air to continue normal activities. Above 8,000–9,000 ft (2,400–2,700 m), however, problems related to hypoxia begin to appear. Because the air is less dense, it offers less oxygen per breath of air inhaled—although oxygen and nitrogen are still mixed in a 20:80 ratio. At about 10,000 ft (3,048 m), the blood can still carry oxygen at 90 percent of its capacity. At this altitude, the flight performance of a healthy pilot is impaired only after some time. At 14,000 ft (4,300 m), the pilot may become appreciably handicapped—forgetting to switch fuel tanks, flying off course, or disregarding hazardous situations. From 18,000 ft (5,500 m) and beyond, exposure to environmental air quickly causes total collapse and inability to control the aircraft. Symptoms of Hypoxia Regardless of acclimatization, endurance, or other attributes, every pilot suffers from hypoxia when exposed to inadequate oxygen pressure. Symptoms vary, but they often include: • A pleasant, mildly intoxicated feeling • Poor coordination • A false sense of security • Drowsiness or stupor As hypoxia worsens, other symptoms appear, including: • Dizziness • Tingling of the skin • Dull headache • Racing heart • Cyanosis—a bluish discoloration of the skin, especially of the lips and the skin beneath the fingernails • Tunnel or blurry vision Safety Rules The FARs (FAR 91.211) require pilots to use supplemental oxygen when flying at high altitudes. Whenever an unpressurized airplane is operated between 12,500 and 14,000 ft (3,800–4,300 m) for more than 30 minutes the crew must use supplemental oxygen. Between 14,000 and 15,000 ft (3,800–4,600 m) the crew must use oxygen at all times. Above 15,000 ft (4,600 m) the crew must use oxygen and make it available to all passengers. Avoiding Hypoxia Here are some general suggestions which apply to young healthy flyers: • Carry oxygen in your plane or don't fly above 12,500 ft (3,800 m). If bad weather lies ahead, go around it if you can't get over it. • Use oxygen on every flight above 12,500 ft (3,800 m). You'll probably need it, and when you do, you might not realize it. • Use oxygen on protracted flights near 12,500 ft (3,800 m). • Use oxygen on all night flights above 5,000 ft (1,500 m). To give your night vision the best protection, use oxygen from the ground up. • Breathe normally when using oxygen. Rapid or deep breathing can cause loss of consciousness from hyperventilation. • Pilots who are older, overweight, out of condition, or who smoke heavily should limit themselves to a ceiling of 8,000–10,000 ft (2,400–3,000 m) unless supplemental oxygen is available. Related Topics Nighttime Vision Supplemental Oxygen (FAR 91.211)


Alcohol and Drugs
	Alcohol and Drugs The consumption of any drug, including alcohol, can impair your ability to fly an airplane, and with few exceptions the use of drugs is prohibited by the FARs. Before using any drug—even an over-the-counter medicine—review its side effects with your Aviation Medical Examiner (AME). The specific rules governing the use of alcohol and drugs appear in FAR 61.15 and FAR 91.17. Pilots remember these rules with the rhyme "eight hours from bottle to throttle." Other Drugs Caffeine and nicotine may cause problems at high altitudes. People who smoke are more prone to the affects of hypoxia, and those who drink significant amounts of caffeine may find its effect heightened by altitude. Related Topics Offenses Involving Alcohol and Drugs (FAR 61.15) Alcohol or Drugs (FAR 91.17)


Navigation: Introduction
	Navigation: Introduction Pilots use two basic forms of navigation—pilotage and electronic. This section of Pilot's Help introduces the basic concepts behind these forms of navigation and explains how some of the most common electronic navigation systems work. You'll learn about: • Pilotage and compensating for the effect of wind. • VOR and other electronic navigation systems. • The ILS and other instrument approach aids. Keep in mind that you need a lot of practice to understand and use electronic navigation aids. This section of Pilot's Help isn't a substitute for thorough study and practice with an authorized flight instructor. Related Topics Pilotage and Deduced Reckoning VOR Navigation Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)


Pilotage and Deduced Reckoning
	Pilotage and Deduced Reckoning Navigation would be simple if you could point an airplane in the right direction and follow the nose to your destination. In the real world, however, wind and the difference between true north and magnetic north complicate matters. Pilotage Pilotage is the most basic way to stay on course. It can be as simple as flying from one landmark to another using a map for reference, or as intricate as deduced reckoning. Fundamentally, pilotage involves matching terrain features with symbols on an aviation chart. Following rivers, ridge lines, or roads are all forms of pilotage. Pilotage depends on reasonably good weather and a pilot who pays attention to each checkpoint along the route. Deduced Reckoning Deduced reckoning is bit more complicated than pilotage. It involves measuring distances, keeping track of time elapsed between checkpoints and estimating the effect of wind. Charles A. Lindbergh's solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean is the most famous example of deduced reckoning. Lindbergh used a watch to measure his progress, steered with a compass, and observed waves to calculate the effect of wind on his track over the ground. The Answer Is Blowing in the Wind Both of these forms of navigation depend on making accurate corrections for the effect of wind on the airplane's flight path. For example, suppose you're flying north from Chicago and the wind is from the west at 20 knots. If you fly a compass heading of 360 degrees, after an hour, you'll be 20 nm east of your intended course. To compensate, you must turn the airplane slightly into the wind. The magnitude of this wind correction angle depends on how fast your airplane flies. If your cruise speed is 100 knots, you must fly a heading of about 350 degrees to stay on course. If you're zipping along at 200 knots, the wind correction angle is only about five degrees. Pilots use a special slide rule called an E6B or special electronic calculators to figure out the wind correction angle for each leg of a cross-country flight. The calculation also tells the pilot how the wind will affect the airplane's ground speed. Related Topics VOR Navigation Using VORs


VOR Navigation
	VOR Navigation Throughout most of the world the primary electronic navigation aid is the VOR. Aircraft fly routes called "airways" defined by a network of stations. How It Works VOR transmitters and receivers operate in the 108.0–117.95 MHz range. The transmitter sends out two signals. The reference phase signal radiates in all directions. A second, variable-phase signal, rotates through 360 degrees, like the beam from a lighthouse. Both signals are in phase when the variable signal passes 360 degrees (referenced to magnetic north) and they are 180 degrees out of phase when the rotating signal passes 180 degrees. Radials The two signals from a VOR transmitter generate 360 lines, like spokes in a wheel. Each line is called a "radial." VOR navigation equipment in an airplane can determine which of those 360 radials the airplane is on. The pilot can also select a radial to define a magnetic course toward or away from a VOR station. The VOR equipment displays the airplane's position to or from the station and left or right of the selected course. Limitations Radio signals in the Very High Frequency (VHF) range are limited to line-of-sight, like FM radio and television broadcasts. This limitation means that hills or other obstacles between you and a VOR transmitter can block the navigation signal unless you climb to a higher altitude. A VOR signal's range is also limited. Below about 18,000 ft (5,486 m), a typical VOR's range is 40–130 nm, depending on terrain and other factors. Above 18,000 ft (5,486 m) range is about 130 nm. The Omni-Bearing Indicator The VOR indicator (or "VOR head") on the instrument panel includes a dial called the omni-bearing selector (OBS) or omni-bearing indicator (OBI); a needle or course deviation indicator (CDI) that pivots at the top like a windshield wiper or moves smoothly from side to side; and an ambiguity indicator, or TO-FROM-OFF flag. You use the OBS to select a radial or to determine which radial you're on. The TO-FROM-OFF flag indicates your position relative to the station and the radial you've selected with the OBS. It also tells you if you're receiving a usable navigation signal—"OFF" means you aren't. Related Topics Using VORs Tuning the NAV Radios Selecting a Course in the OBI Determining Your Position With Two VORs VOR Approaches Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)


Using VORs
	Using VORs The omni-bearing indicator (OBI) can answer three questions: • "Where am I in relationship to the VOR station?" • "Where is the station relative to my position?" • And "If I want to intercept a specific radial, what heading should I turn to?" Answer One The first question is answered by rotating the OBS until the needle centers and the ambiguity indicator shows FROM. The reading at the top of the OBI now shows which radial you're on. For example, suppose the needle is in the center with a FROM indication. If the reading at the top of the OBS is 270, you're somewhere along a line due west of the station. A reading of 150 puts you along a line southeast of the station, and a reading of 030 means you're northeast of the station. Answer Two To find your way to a VOR station, change the course in the OBI until the ambiguity indicator shows TO and the needle centers. The reading at the top of the OBI is the magnetic course you should fly to go directly to the station. For example, if the indicator says 090 in this situation, turn to a heading of due east, and you'll go right to the station. Answer Three The third question assumes that you want to intercept a specific radial, often an airway running between two VORs on a chart. Suppose the airway you want to fly between VOR A and VOR B has a course of 067 degrees. To fly away from VOR A on that airway, tune VOR A on one of the navigation receivers. Change the OBS setting to 067. The ambiguity indicator should show FROM, and the needle will be deflected to one side. If the needle is deflected to the left, you should fly a heading to the left of 067 degrees to intercept the radial. A 30-degree intercept angle is a good starting point, so turn your airplane to a heading of 037 degrees and hold that heading until the needle on the OBI moves toward the center. As the needle centers, smoothly turn to a heading of 067 degrees. If there is a crosswind, the needle will soon drift off-center (needles always move into the wind) and you must adjust your heading toward the needle (into the wind) until it drifts back to the center position. You will soon settle on a heading slightly into the wind that keeps the needle centered. Inbound on the Radial Things get a bit more complicated about halfway along your trip to VOR B. At that point you should tune in VOR B, because you're likely to lose the signal from VOR A. Airways are defined by radials, which always go away from VORs. If you want to fly to VOR B at this point, you must use the reciprocal of the radial you want to fly. Assume the airway between A and B is labeled 247 degrees as it approaches VOR B. To fly toward VOR B on that radial, you must select the reciprocal of 247 degrees, or 067 degrees, as the course on the OBI. Check that the OBS is set to 067 degrees and continue. Expect the needle to become more sensitive as you approach VOR B. As you fly over VOR B, the ambiguity indicator will change from TO to FROM. Related Topics Tuning the NAV Radios Selecting a Course in the OBI Determining Your Position With Two VORs VOR Approaches Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)


Determining Your Position with Two VORs
	Determining Your Position With Two VORs If you are uncertain of your position, you can determine your position by using two VORs simultaneously. Tune in two VORs that you expect to be within range. Change the setting on the OBI of each VOR receiver until each needle is centered and both flags show FROM. The indication at the top of each OBI tells you which two radials you're on. Your airplane is at the point where the two radials intersect. If you're truly confused about your position, the more prudent course is to tune in any VOR with a decent signal and center the needle with a TO indication. Turn to the heading that matches the reading on the OBI and fly to that station. Related Topics Tuning the NAV Radios Selecting a Course in the OBI VOR Approaches Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)


Horizontal Situation Indicator
	Horizontal Situation Indicator An HSI, or horizontal situation indicator, is a fancy VOR indicator superimposed on a heading indicator. It still has an omni-bearing selector (OBS) or omni-bearing indicator (OBI), a course deviation indicator, and an ambiguity indicator. But an HSI gives you an overhead view of the airplane's position relative to a VOR radial or other electronic course. You can find an HSI in the cockpit of the Boeing 737-400 in Flight Simulator. Bird's-Eye View The HSI shows you a top-down view. Your airplane is at the center of the instrument. Your magnetic heading is at the top. The omni-bearing selector is a yellow arrow with a central segment that moves back and forth and acts as a course deviation indicator. A white triangle near the center replaces the TO-FROM-OFF flag. It points toward the VOR station. Related Topics Tuning the NAV Radios Using the HSI VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS) Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)


Using the HSI
	Using the HSI You can use the horizontal situation indicator (HSI) on the 737-400 or Learjet 45 instrument panel for en route navigation along VOR radials or to guide you down an ILS approach. Intercepting a VOR Radial Interpreting your position relative to a VOR station and a selected radial is easy with an HSI. • Tune in a VOR station on the NAV 1 radio, which is connected to the HSI. In the Learjet 45, make sure the VOR 1 information is visible next to the HSI. If it isn’t, click the VOR select knob at the bottom of left of the HSI panel to select the VOR 1 display. • Select the course you want to fly on the autopilot panel in the section marked "course." As you change the course setting, the yellow arrow moves around the face of the instrument. • When you've selected the course, turn toward the head of the yellow needle. As you turn, the heading indicator portion of the HSI rotates. The center part of the needle will be deflected to one side. Keep turning until the center part of the needle and an imaginary line running top to bottom through the HSI form a 30–45-degree angle. Hold that heading, and the center portion of the needle will gradually move to the middle of the HSI. As the needle centers, slowly turn away from the needle to make a smooth intercept. Flying an ILS The HSI has built-in localizer and glide slope indicators that make it easy to fly an ILS approach because most of the information you need is in one place. • Tune the ILS frequency into the NAV 1 radio. • Select the localizer course (usually the runway heading) on the autopilot panel in the section marked "course." As you change the course setting, the yellow arrow moves around the face of the instrument. • Intercept the final approach course just as you would a VOR radial—but keep in mind that a localizer is much more sensitive, so use small corrections. • On the Boeing 737-400, the glide slope indicator is a yellow diamond shape that moves up and down along a vertical scale on the right side of the HSI. On the Learjet 45, the glide slope indicator is a white pointer that moves along a vertical scale. If the glide slope marker is above the center, you're below the glide slope. If it's in the lower half of the vertical scale, you're above the glide slope. Related Topics VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS) Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)


VOR Approaches
	VOR Approaches A VOR approach is a nonprecision approach. Almost all VOR approaches have visibility minimums of about 1 mi (1.6 km) for small, relatively slow airplanes such as the Cessna Skylane RG. Minimum descent altitudes are determined by the local terrain and other factors, but they are usually 500–600 ft (152183 m) AGL. Two Situations When ATC can't vector you to the final approach, you must fly the entire approach procedure on your own. Most VOR approaches fall into two categories. • The VOR facility is located at the airport and serves as both the initial approach fix (IAF) and the final approach fix (FAF). • The VOR is located at some distance from the field and may or may not be the final approach fix. Situation Number One Assuming the first situation, you must fly over the facility, reverse course in what's called a procedure turn, and then track inbound to the VOR on the published radial while descending to the minimum descent altitude. The missed approach point is usually the VOR, so you don't need to keep track of elapsed time as you fly the approach. If you can't find the VOR, you won't be able to find the airport. Situation Number Two There are many variations of the second situation. The most common requires that you fly over the VOR, fly outbound at a published minimum altitude while reversing course, and then track inbound to the VOR while maintaining a published altitude. This time, however, you do not begin the descent to the minimum descent altitude until you cross over the VOR inbound to the airport. As you proceed toward the airport you are tracking a radial outbound. Radials get wider as you fly away from the station, and this increasing insensitivity means that the airport might be well off to either side when you descend below the clouds. You keep track of your elapsed time from the VOR to the missed approach point so you know when to go around if you don't see the airport. Related Topics VOR Navigation Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)


Procedure Turns
	Procedure Turns At many airports where radar vectors aren't available, approaches require you to fly over the airport, a VOR, or non-directional beacon, fly outbound, reverse course, and proceed back in to land. For example, if you plan to fly an approach to runway 18 and you are south of the airport, you must fly north of the airport and reverse course. The course reversal is called a "procedure turn." You're in Charge You can perform any kind of course reversal at any point if you observe two requirements: • The course reversal must be on the same side of the final approach course as the published procedure turn. • It must be completed within the minimum distance published on the approach chart (usually 10 nm or 18.5 km). The FAA does suggest some types of course reversals in the AIM. For example, you can turn 45 degrees off the outbound course, then turn back 180 degrees until you intercept the final approach course. You can also do a racetrack turn that resembles a standard holding pattern, make a teardrop turn, or make an 80-degree turn followed by a 260-degree turn to intercept the final approach course. Mandatory Procedure Turns At some locations, a mandatory one-minute holding pattern is published as the procedure turn. You must fly the mandatory pattern—or at least part of it. You don't have to make a complete circuit unless you need to lose altitude. If a specific course reversal track is published, you must fly it as shown. Vectoring and NoPT When radar vectors are available, you seldom fly a course reversal. In fact, when you are vectored to the final approach course, flying the procedure turn is prohibited. You'll see the note "NoPT" when this rule applies. Related Topics Holding Patterns VOR Navigation Non-Directional Beacons (NDB) Horizontal Situation Indicator Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)


Holding Patterns
	Holding Patterns Air traffic control uses holding patterns to adjust the flow of traffic and avoid conflicts. Because holding is an inefficient use of fuel, most flights are delayed on the ground rather than in the air. Holding instructions consist of a fix, a cardinal direction in which to hold, a radial or bearing, and an expect-further-clearance (EFC) time. A typical holding instruction goes something like this: "Hold north of the XYZ VOR on the 000 radial, expect further clearance at 30 past the hour." A standard holding pattern is clockwise—right turns—so the direction of turn is specified only when left turns are required. You track the radial/bearing inbound to the fix. In this example you proceed south toward the XYZ VOR on the 000 radial and turn right at the VOR. Holding Pattern Entries To keep airplanes within protected airspace, the FAA recommends specific methods of entering a holding pattern. • Teardrop At the fix, turn 30 degrees toward the holding airspace; hold that heading for one minute, then turn in the opposite direction to intercept the inbound course and return to the fix. • Parallel Fly outbound for one minute while paralleling the inbound course; turn 225 degrees into the holding airspace to intercept the inbound course and return to the fix. • Direct Fly to the fix and turn right (standard holding pattern). Holding patterns are predicated on standard rate turns. You must compensate for wind drift while flying the pattern to stay in the protected airspace. Maximum Speeds While flying a holding pattern you must not exceed certain speed limits. • If you're flying a propeller-driven aircraft, the maximum holding speed is 175 knots, regardless of altitude. • If you're flying a jet, the maximum holding speed varies with altitude. Up to 6,000 ft (1830 m), the maximum authorized holding speed is 200 knots. • From 6,000 ft (1830 m) to 14,000 ft (4270 m), the maximum authorized holding speed is 230 knots (210 knots where specifically noted). • Above 14,000 ft (4270 m), the maximum authorized holding speed for a jet is 265 knots. Related Topics Procedure Turns VOR Navigation Non-Directional Beacons (NDB) Horizontal Situation Indicator Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)


Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
	Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Many VORs are equipped with distance measuring equipment (DME). Stations with both VOR and DME capability are called VORTACs or VOR-DMEs. How It Works DME operates in the Ultra High Frequency (UHF) range. Because DME transmissions are paired with their associated VORs, you don't need to know which frequency a given DME uses. Just select the VOR frequency and you automatically get the DME signal. The DME equipment in the airplane sends a signal to the ground station, which then replies. The equipment in the airplane converts the interval between the time when it sent the first signal and the receipt of the reply into a distance from the station. If you're flying directly to or away from the station, you can also use DME to show your ground speed and the time required to fly to the station. Slant Range DME distances are slant-range distances. That is, they represent the distance from the ground-based transmitter to the airborne equipment, which is the hypotenuse of a triangle. The other two legs are the airplane's altitude and its distance over the ground from the station. Slant range is always greater than the airplane's actual distance from the station. For example, at a DME distance of 15 nm you might be only 14 nm from the VOR as measured on the ground, depending on your altitude. DME distances become less reliable as you approach the DME station. Always allow yourself a margin of a mile or two if you are approaching the boundary of airspace where communication or a clearance is required. Related Topics VOR Navigation Non-Directional Beacons (NDB) Horizontal Situation Indicator Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)


Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)
	Non-Directional Beacons (NDB) Non-directional beacons (NDBs) are the oldest type of navigational aid still in use today. They operate in the 200–400 KHz frequency range. NDBs are inexpensive to install and operate, so instrument approaches based on NDBs are frequently found at relatively small airports with no other instrument landing equipment. As the name implies, its signal is transmitted in all directions. How It Works The airborne equipment is an automatic direction finder (ADF). The terms "NDB approach" and "ADF approach" are often used interchangeably. Just as the needle of a magnetic compass points toward the magnetic north pole, the needle of an ADF points toward the source of the radio signal to which its receiver is tuned. As the airplane turns, the needle continues to point toward the transmitting antenna. Many ADF indicators have a fixed-card dial with marks every five degrees and numbers at the 0, 90, 180, and 270 degree points; most have dots at 45-degree increments for easy reference. Relative Bearing (RB) When the airplane proceeds directly toward the station, the needle points straight ahead, or zero degrees relative to the nose of the airplane. A 90-degree left turn makes the needle point 90 degrees to the right, or 090 degrees relative to the nose. These angles measured relative to the nose of the airplane are called relative bearings. Magnetic Bearing (MB) By themselves, relative bearings are of little value for navigation because we navigate using magnetic courses, bearings, and tracks. To figure out which magnetic bearing you're on, you must add the relative bearings to the airplane's magnetic heading (MH). Use the formula MB = RB + MH. For example, if you are maintaining a heading of 090 degrees magnetic and the needle points toward the right wing at 090 degrees relative bearing, the magnetic bearing to the transmitting antenna is 180 degrees magnetic—so you are north of the station. Related Topics Homing to an NDB Tracking an NDB Bearing Activating and Tuning the ADF VOR Navigation


Homing to an NDB
	Homing to an NDB Homing is the simplest method of using the automatic direction finder (ADF) to fly to an NDB. Just turn your airplane until the ADF needle is pointing right at the nose—a 0-degree relative bearing. If there is little or no crosswind, you will fly directly to the NDB. If the wind blows you off course, turn the airplane to keep the needle on the nose. Any significant crosswind will make you fly a long arc toward the station rather than a straight line. This might be acceptable in good weather, but it could be deadly when flying solely on instruments. To use the ADF for instrument flying, you must track a specific bearing by compensating for the wind. Related Topics Tracking an NDB Bearing Non-Directional Beacons (NDB) Activating and Tuning the ADF


Tracking an NDB Bearing
	Tracking an NDB Bearing Tracking to or from an NDB means flying a specific bearing while correcting for wind drift. When tracking, the ADF needle will seldom, if ever, point directly ahead. To track a magnetic bearing to or from an NDB: • Turn parallel to the course you want to fly. • With the airplane steady on the course, note the ADF needle deflection. If the needle is pointing into the wind, sit tight—the wind will drift the airplane back on course. • If the needle is deflected downwind, say 10 degrees, turn into the wind double that amount, or 20 degrees. Hold the new heading until the needle (which is now on the upwind side of the nose) moves down to a 20-degree deflection. Now you're back on course. • When you are tracking the course, the difference between the airplane's heading and the course you want to fly will equal the ADF needle deflection. Related Topics Homing to an NDB Non-Directional Beacons (NDB) Activating and Tuning the ADF


Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)
	Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) A radio magnetic indicator (RMI) combines an ADF (and often a VOR indicator) with a heading indicator. This arrangement makes it much easier to fly bearings to or from NDBs and can help you easily keep track of your position relative to a VOR. You'll find an RMI on the instrument panel of the Boeing 737-400. With an RMI, relative bearings are a thing of the past—the ADF needle points to magnetic bearings. The head of the needle always indicates the magnetic bearing TO the station, and the tail of the needle always indicates the magnetic bearing of the airplane FROM the station. Most RMIs have two needles—one for the ADF and one for the VOR. No TO-FROM-OFF flag is needed for the VOR indicator, because the needle always points TO the station. The VOR function is used exactly the same as the ADF function. The RMI on the Flight Simulator Boeing 737-400 uses the green needle to show VOR indications and the yellow needle to show ADF indications. Related Topics VOR Navigation Non-Directional Beacons (NDB) Horizontal Situation Indicator


Instrument Landing System (ILS)
	Instrument Landing System (ILS) The instrument landing system is the most precise approach system currently in use. A typical ILS includes a localizer to provide left-right alignment with the runway and a glide slope to define the proper descent path, usually about three degrees. An ILS also includes marker beacons that define specific points along the final approach path. Decision Height Each ILS approach chart has a decision height (DH) for that approach. This is the indicated altitude at which you must decide to either continue the approach to a landing or to initiate the missed approach procedure. If your airplane is stabilized on the glide slope at approach airspeed and is configured for landing, the transition from instrument meteorological conditions to visual meteorological conditions at or above decision height requires no action at all—just continue the descent and land. If you reach DH and do not make visual contact with the runway environment, add power, pitch up, retract the gear and flaps, and execute the missed approach procedure. Ignore any deviation below DH, but do not attempt to salvage the approach at the last minute if you make visual contact. Back Course Approaches Because the localizer antenna radiates bidirectionally, all localizers transmit a "back course" signal away from the approach path and runway. In many cases, electronic screening is provided to block the back course signal so that it cannot be received by users departing the airport. However, at some airports the back course is usable and a back course instrument approach is authorized. A back course approach does not have a glide slope. When inbound on a back course approach your course will be the reciprocal of the front course and you must fly away from the needle to correct for wind drift. If you have a horizontal situation indicator (HSI), however, you always fly toward the needle. At some major airports, the same runway has two instrument landing systems, one for each direction. However, only one ILS can be activated at a given time. Related Topics The Localizer The Glide Slope


The Localizer
	The Localizer In the U.S., localizer transmitters operate on frequencies between 108.100–111.950 MHz. Glide slope transmitters operate in the UHF range, but they are paired with the localizer frequencies. The localizer antenna is installed at the far end of the runway. Its beam is adjusted so that it is 700 ft (213 m) wide at the runway threshold as measured by full-scale deflection of the course deviation indicator needle. The typical width of the localizer beam is five degrees, although the actual width varies with runway length. The signal is highly directional—it cannot be used if your airplane's position is more than 35 degrees away from the runway heading. At the outer marker, typically 4–7 nm (7.5–13 km) from the runway, a five-degree localizer signal is 2,000–3,500 ft (610–1,067 m) wide. The ILS becomes more sensitive as you approach the runway. Flying the Localizer When using the localizer to fly an ILS approach you always fly toward the needle. You have no choice—the omni-bearing selector does not work when a localizer frequency is selected. Many pilots set the OBS to the published course for the approach as a memory aid, not as a part of the procedure. Remember, however, that if you're using the HSI in the Boeing 737-400, you must set the inbound course in the course selector on the autopilot. Tracking the Localizer Whether you are vectored to intercept the localizer by a controller or do it on your own, you will intercept a localizer at no more than a 45-degree angle several miles from the final approach fix. As the localizer needle approaches the center during the intercept, turn to the published inbound heading and note the rate of movement of the needle. To avoid overcontrolling, do not bank more than five degrees or change heading more than two degrees at a time after you intercept the localizer. You may find that making small heading changes with the rudder is more efficient than banking. When the needle is within one-half scale of being centered, concentrate on making very small heading changes into the wind to move it to the centered position. Remember that when you reach the threshold, full-scale deflection on either side of the indicator represents only 350 ft (106 m). Related Topic The Glide Slope


The Glideslope
	The Glide Slope The glide slope antenna is located on one side of the runway, about 1000 ft (305 m) down the runway from the threshold. Its beam is normally inclined three degrees, although local conditions may require shallower or steeper glide paths. The glide slope beam is approximately 1.4 degrees. Because one degree = 100 ft per nm from the antenna, the glide slope is 140 ft thick (70 ft above and 70 ft below the centerline) one mile from the antenna. Tracking the Glide Slope As you track the localizer while maintaining altitude the glide slope needle is at the top of the indicator. As it starts to move toward the center, make sure that your airspeed is constant at the correct approach speed. Just before the needle centers (about one dot), extend the landing gear. With a fixed power setting and the added drag of the gear, the airplane should begin to lose altitude at approach airspeed. There are many techniques for flying a smooth descent path. One common method is to adjust pitch to follow the glide slope and adjust the throttle to maintain approach speed. However you choose to fly the glide slope, remember to use small, smooth corrections. The beam is very narrow and tolerances are tight. Related Topics Instrument Landing System (ILS) The Localizer


The Flight Simulator Ground School
	The Flight Simulator Ground School The ground school for Flight Simulator introduces you to the basics of aerodynamics, airplane systems, the flight environment, human factors, and navigation. In the United States, Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) require that all pilots receive ground instruction in these and other subjects as part of their training for pilot certificates and ratings. Multimedia in Pilot's Help Many topics in this ground school include videos, animations, and pictures. Look for these items in the left column of the topic. To view an animation or video, click it once. Links to Other Topics Throughout the ground school, you'll also find links to related topics; procedures for operating the controls and systems in Flight Simulator; and lessons, challenges, and adventures that you can fly. Look for these links at the end of each topic. NOTE: The Flight Simulator ground school covers topics drawn from private, instrument, commercial, and airline transport pilot ground schools. The ground school and lessons in Flight Simulator are for use only with Flight Simulator. They are not a substitute for flight and ground training from an authorized instructor. Related Topics Ground School Background Aeronautical Knowledge: Required Subjects FlightSafety International


Ground School Background
	Ground School Background The Flight Simulator ground school provides a foundation for each of the pilot courses in the Pilot Training section of Help. Your Flight Simulator instructor assumes you're familiar with this information when you begin the flight lessons. Pilot Certificates In the United States, The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) issues six types of pilot certificates: • Student pilot • Recreational pilot • Private pilot • Commercial pilot • Certified Flight Instructor • Airline Transport Pilot Ratings Ratings specify the types of aircraft a pilot is allowed to fly, the acceptable minimum weather for that pilot, and other privileges and limitations on a pilot certificate. Ratings such as "airplane single-engine land," "instrument," and "airplane multi-engine land," are the most common. A type rating is required to act as pilot in command of any aircraft with a maximum gross takeoff weight of 12,500 pounds, or any aircraft that is powered by a turbojet engine. Instruction and Tests To earn a pilot certificate, a pilot must complete ground and flight instruction and then pass a written and practical test. Adding ratings to a pilot certificate requires additional ground and flight instruction and a practical test. The instrument rating also requires a written test. Specific Requirements Part 61 of the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) specifies the aeronautical knowledge and flight experience required for each pilot certificate and rating. Related Topics Aeronautical Knowledge: Required Subjects The Flight Simulator Ground School FlightSafety International


Aeronautical Knowledge: Required Subjects
	Aeronautical Knowledge: Required Subjects Part 61 of the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) specifies the subjects that a student must master to earn each pilot certificate or rating. Instructors must certify that they have given students ground and flight instruction in those areas and that the student meets the standards for a particular pilot certificate or rating. Pilot Privileges and Limitations The FARs also spell out the privileges and limitations of each pilot certificate and rating. For example, student pilots can't carry passengers. Private pilots can't operate a charter service or accept compensation for flights. A pilot must have an instrument rating to fly in clouds or when the ceiling or visibility do not meet the minimums established for flight under Visual Flight Rules (VFR). Core Subjects In general, the ground school for each pilot certificate must cover the following core subjects: • Aerodynamics • Navigation • Flight operations and aircraft performance • Airspace • Weather • Human factors • Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) More advanced certificates and ratings require a correspondingly more thorough understanding of each topic. For example, a private pilot must understand the basics of lift, weight, thrust, and drag. A pilot pursuing an airline transport pilot certificate must understand Mach wave modeling and acceleration/deceleration curves. NOTE: The ground school for Flight Simulator covers the core subjects at a level intended to enhance the experience of using Flight Simulator and to provide Flight Simulator pilots with an introduction to the subjects that pilots in flight training must master. The ground school is not intended as a substitute for ground and flight instruction from an authorized flight instructor. Related Topics The Flight Simulator Ground School Ground School Background FlightSafety International


FlightSafety International
	FlightSafety International If you're interested in learning to fly real airplanes or if you want to hone your flying skills, FlightSafety International sets the standard in pilot training, from beginner to professional. FlightSafety International, founded in 1951, is the world's largest pilot training organization. Through a network of Learning Centers around the world and the FlightSafety Academy in Vero Beach, Florida, FlightSafety International trains more than 50,000 pilots and maintenance technicians annually. Although FlightSafety International is best known for training corporate pilots to fly business jets, the company also provides training services to many major airlines and the military on all types of aircraft, from twin-engine turboprops to the newest jumbo jets. The FlightSafety Academy prepares people with no prior flying experience for careers with airlines all over the world for both CAA and FAA licenses. The Academy operates a large fleet of single-engine and multiengine aircraft. Pilots who want to add a rating, earn a new pilot certificate, or polish their skills can also attend intensive, specialized courses at FlightSafety Learning Centers. These courses feature simulators representing a wide variety of general aviation aircraft. For the latest information about FlightSafety International, check the company's Web site at http://www.flightsafety.com/ or write to: FlightSafety Academy, Vero Beach Municipal Airport, 2805 Airport Drive, P.O. Box 2708, Vero Beach, FL 32961-2708, Attn: Dept. MS. Related Topics The Flight Simulator Ground School Ground School Background Aeronautical Knowledge: Required Subjects


Electrical Systems
	Electrical Systems Most modern airplanes are equipped with an electrical system, which usually includes a generator or an alternator, circuit breakers or fuses, a battery, and wiring. Either a load meter or an ammeter keeps the pilot informed about the health of the system. Electrical power is distributed over a bus to the various devices that use it. Starting Power The original application of electricity in airplanes was to power a starter, which eliminated the need to hand prop a plane. Today, electricity is now used for everything from avionics to CD players and for heating food in the galleys of large airplanes. Large airplanes often have auxiliary power units (APUs) to provide power on the ground. These small jet engines provide ground power and turn generators that create the massive amounts of power required to start turbofan engines. Batteries Small airplanes such as the Cessna Skylane RG and Extra 300S use lead-acid batteries much like those in cars. However, airplane batteries are designed specifically for use with aircraft engines. Master Switch Aircraft like the Cessna Skylane RG have a master switch that turns on the electrical system and starts drawing power from the battery. It's important to turn the master switch off after shutting down the engine—leaving it on drains the battery. Related Topic Generators and Alternators


Generators and Alternators
	Generators and Alternators Batteries provide the initial burst of electrical power to start an airplane engine, but the demand caused by lights, avionics, and other devices would quickly drain even a powerful battery. To provide power to the electrical system and keep the battery charged for the next start, aircraft are equipped with generators or alternators. Most modern light aircraft use alternators, which provide a better, more consistent supply of electrical energy through the range of engine speeds, especially when the engine is idling. Powering Up In an airplane equipped with an electrical system, power from the battery turns an electric starter. The starter rotates the engine until the combustion begins; then the generator or alternator comes on line. Related Topic Aircraft Engines


Operating Airplane Control Surfaces
	Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Pilots use control surfaces, also called flight controls, to move the airplane about its axes of motion. Control surfaces are actually airfoils that deflect air in one direction and cause the airplane to move in the opposite direction. Primary and Secondary Controls Control surfaces fall into two basic categories: • Primary control surfaces include the ailerons, rudder, and elevator. Primary control surfaces are manipulated by the control yoke or stick and the rudder pedals. In small, general aviation airplanes, the control yoke and pedals are linked directly to the control surfaces by a system of cables and pulleys. In larger aircraft, hydraulic systems boost the pilot's control inputs. • Secondary control surfaces include trim devices and flaps. Secondary surfaces are controlled either mechanically or electrically. The Axes of Flight Each of the three primary control surfaces moves an airplane about one of the three axes of flight. The ailerons bank or roll the airplane about its longitudinal axis. The rudder yaws the airplane about its vertical axis. The elevator moves the airplane about its lateral axis, changing the aircraft's pitch attitude. Related Topics Using the Ailerons Using the Rudder Using the Elevator The Axes of Flight Controlling the Airplane With a Joystick


Using the Ailerons
	Using the Ailerons Ailerons are located at the ends of the wings. They control bank, or roll, about an airplane's longitudinal axis. You control the ailerons by moving the control yoke or stick left and right. The ailerons move in opposite directions. For example, if you move the yoke left, the left aileron moves up, reducing lift on the left wing. The right aileron simultaneously moves down, increasing the lift on the right wing, and the airplane banks to the left. Return to Center Remember to center the yoke or stick when the airplane reaches the angle of bank you want. Aerodynamic forces will cause the control surface to streamline itself with the wing, but after a slight delay. You should control bank precisely by applying smooth, small corrections. Related Topics Using the Rudder Using the Elevator Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Controlling the Airplane With a Joystick


Using the Elevator
	Using the Elevator The elevator is located on the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer. It controls pitch—movement about the airplane's lateral axis. Some airplanes have a control surface called a stabilator or "flying tail" instead of an elevator. A stabilator combines the horizontal stabilizer and the elevator into one unit. The elevator moves up and down when you apply back or forward pressure on the control yoke or stick. Going Up? The name "elevator" is a bit misleading. The elevator controls the aircraft's pitch attitude, but it doesn't really make the airplane climb or descend. An airplane needs power to climb. If you pull back on the yoke without adding power, the airplane will start to climb, but soon the speed begins decreasing and the airplane eventually stops climbing and stabilizes at a lower airspeed. If you raise the nose significantly without adding power, the airplane might even stall. So in the end, the only thing that the elevator elevates is the aircraft's pitch attitude. Related Topics Using the Ailerons Using the Rudder Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Controlling the Airplane With a Joystick


Using the Rudder
	Using the Rudder The rudder controls yaw movement about an airplane's vertical axis. The rudder does not turn the airplane. Its primary functions are to maintain coordinated flight during turns and to counteract an airplane's left-turning tendency. How It Works The rudder is a hinged control surface attached to the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer. You control the rudder by pressing pedals in the cockpit. The Rudder in Action When you bank the wings with the ailerons, drag from the aileron on the raised wing makes the airplane yaw in the direction opposite to the direction of turn. So when you turn the control yoke to the left, you should simultaneously apply pressure to the left rudder pedal to counteract this "adverse yaw." Step on the Ball During takeoff and flight at low airspeeds, such as during a climb, you must apply right rudder to counteract the left-turning tendency—the cumulative effect of several forces that tend to swing the airplane's nose to the left. The ball portion of the turn coordinator shows whether you've applied enough left or right rudder to compensate for yaw and the left-turning tendency. If the ball in the inclinometer moves to the left, add left rudder. If it moves to the right, add right rudder. Related Topics Using the Ailerons Using the Elevator Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Turn Coordinator Controlling the Airplane With a Joystick


Using the Trim Control
	Using the Trim Control The trim control is like the cruise control on a car. It helps you maintain a specific control position so that the airplane stays at a particular speed or attitude without making you hold constant pressure on the controls. Most small aircraft have only one trim tab, located on the elevator. Larger aircraft usually have trim tabs on all the primary control surfaces—ailerons, rudder, and elevator. How It Works On small aircraft, the pilot moves the trim tab by rotating a wheel. The trim wheel is usually located below the engine controls or between the front seats. To apply nose-down trim, you rotate the wheel forward or up. To apply nose-up trim, you rotate the wheel backward or down. Moving the trim wheel deflects the trim tab, which in turn moves the control surface in the opposite direction. To hold the elevator up, the trim tab moves down. What It Does The elevator trim compensates for the changing force created by the flow of air over the elevator. When the airplane is properly trimmed for level-cruising flight, you can fly "hands off," applying only occasional, small control pressures to compensate for the occasional bump or minor changes in heading. If you add power, however, the airplane speeds up, and the nose tends to rise because more air is flowing over the tail. To maintain altitude, you must apply forward pressure on the control yoke. Holding that forward pressure for more than a few minutes is fatiguing and difficult. To compensate, apply down elevator trim until the pressure disappears. If you reduce power, the airplane slows down, and the nose tends to fall because less air is flowing over the tail. To maintain altitude, you must apply back pressure on the yoke. To compensate, apply up elevator trim until the pressure disappears. Trim for Speed You can also think of the trim control as the airplane speed control. For example, suppose you set the engine controls for cruise power and trim the airplane so that it flies straight and level "hands off." The airspeed will soon stabilize at a particular speed. If you reduce power, the airplane slows down and the nose drops. If you leave the trim setting alone, the airplane will gradually stabilize in a descent at the cruise speed you established earlier. Likewise, if you add power, the nose will rise, and the airplane will stabilize in a climb at about cruise speed. Trim to Relieve Pressure, Not Steer Remember to use the trim control only to relieve control pressure. Don't try to fly the airplane with the trim control. If you want to change the airplane's pitch attitude, apply the appropriate control pressure on the yoke, change the power setting if necessary, and then adjust the trim after the airplane stabilizes. Related Topics Using the Ailerons Using the Elevator Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Controlling the Airplane With a Joystick


Using the Flaps
	Using the Flaps Flaps change the shape of the wing, creating more lift and adding drag. These two effects allow you to fly at low airspeed and descend at a steep angle without building up speed. Flaps are not primary control surfaces—you don't use them to steer the airplane. How They Work Flaps extend from the trailing edge of the wing. They increase the curvature, or camber, of the wing, which increases lift. They also hang down, increasing drag. Pilots extend flaps in increments, typically measured in degrees. On most airplanes, flaps move in five- or ten-degree increments through a range of 0 (fully retracted) to about 40 degrees (fully extended). The first few increments add more lift than drag. On many aircraft, extending 5–15 degrees of flaps helps the airplane take off more quickly. As the flaps extend beyond about 20 degrees, they add more drag than lift. Flap settings of 20 degrees or more are used for approach and landing. Pitch Changes As you extend or retract flaps, be prepared for changes in pitch. For example, as you extend flaps in the Cessna Skylane RG, the nose tends to rise. You need to add forward pressure on the yoke to hold the nose on the horizon, and then use the trim control to relieve the forward pressure. Likewise, as you retract flaps in the Cessna, the nose tends to drop, so be ready to add back pressure on the yoke and then use trim to relieve the back pressure as the airplane stabilizes. Types of Flaps Flaps come in several varieties: • Plain flaps are mounted on simple hinges. The trailing edge of the wing simply pivots downward. Plain flaps are common on small aircraft because they're simple and inexpensive. • Split flaps hang down from the trailing edge of the wing, but the top surface of the wing doesn't move. • Slotted flaps work much like plain flaps. But they leave a gap between the flap and the wing, allowing air to flow from the bottom of the wing over the top surface of the flap. This airflow dramatically increases lift at low airspeed. • Fowler flaps are the most complicated and efficient arrangement. They move backward and downward as they're deployed, increasing both the wing's area and its curvature. Large jet aircraft usually have Fowler flaps. Operating the Flaps Flaps increase drag, but they aren't speed brakes. You can extend the flaps only when the airplane is flying at or below the maximum flap operating speed (indicated by the top of the white arc on the airspeed indicator). Deploying the flaps at higher speeds may cause structural damage. In general, extend 5–10 degrees of flaps before takeoff to help the airplane lift off the runway quickly. Remember, however, to follow the recommendations in each airplane flight manual. Retract the flaps after reaching a safe altitude and climb speed. When preparing to land, extend the flaps in increments. A good rule of thumb is to extend about 10 degrees of flaps as you enter the traffic pattern or begin an approach. As you continue around the traffic pattern, add flaps in small increments. For example, in the Cessna Skylane RG, set 10 degrees of flaps on the downwind leg. Set 20 degrees of flaps as you turn from downwind to base. Add flaps as necessary as you turn to final and approach the runway. Related Topics Using the Ailerons Using the Elevator Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Controlling the Airplane With a Joystick


Fuel Systems
	Fuel Systems Regardless of the type of engine it uses, every powered airplane requires a fuel system, which includes fuel tanks, fuel lines, and either a carburetor or fuel injection system to deliver fuel to the engine. Airplanes with high wings, like the Cessna Skylane, often use a gravity feed system to get fuel from the tanks to the engine. Airplanes with low wings use electric or mechanical pumps to deliver fuel under pressure to the engine through a tank selector. Fuel systems usually include two or more tanks. Some use rubber bladders, while others use "wet wings" where the wing structure itself forms the fuel container. Sealant keeps the fuel from leaking around rivets. Water Problems Because water is heavier than gasoline, it flows to low points in the tanks and fuel system plumbing. Drains are installed at these low points so you can remove water that was pumped in with the fuel or that collected on the tank walls. Types of Fuel Most airplanes use either kerosene or aviation gas, commonly referred to as avgas. Turbine-powered airplanes, whether turbojet, turbofan or turboprop, use kerosene. Piston-powered airplanes use avgas. Both kerosene and avgas come in multiple grades. Turbine fuel, referred to as jet petroleum, or JP, comes with various additives. Avgas comes in various octanes. The engine manufacturer specifies the grade of fuel for each engine. The most common general aviation fuel, 100LL (low lead, although it has a significant lead content), is dyed blue for easy identification. Fuel rated at 80/87 octane is dyed red. Kerosene, regardless of grade, is clear or straw colored. In an emergency, fuel of a higher grade than specified can be used; if your airplane's manual calls for 80/87 and only 100LL is available, you can use it. The converse is not true. An engine that requires 100LL will quickly destroy itself if fed 80/87. Any piston engine will be destroyed if you attempt to run it on jet fuel. Moral: Always supervise the fueling of your airplane. TIP: You can make managing the fuel system and operating the engines in Flight Simulator more challenging by changing options on the Fuel tab of the Aircraft Settings dialog box. For more information, see the topic "Setting Fuel Options" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Pilot's Help. Related Topics Setting Fuel Options Fuel Management Piston Engines: Basic Principles Piston Engine Controls


Fuel Management
	Fuel Management Fuel mismanagement—running out of fuel or mismanaging the fuel supply—remains one of the most common causes of aviation accidents. This simple, pilot-related mistake, is completely avoidable. Airplane fuel capacity is measured in gallons or pounds. Most performance charts for light general aviation airplanes state fuel consumption for a given power setting in gallons per hour. Turbine-powered airplane fuel consumption rates are normally given in pounds per hour (PPH). It's important to watch the clock as closely as the fuel gauges when flying. The FARs require you to arrive at your destination with at least 30 minutes of fuel on board during the day under VFR. You need 45 minutes of reserve fuel at night. The rules for IFR operations are even more strict. Managing the Fuel Managing the fuel supply involves two basic tasks. • Drawing fuel from the appropriate fuel tanks by using the fuel tank selector. It's best to alternate between fuel tanks, keeping track of the time used out of each tank. Running one tank dry and then switching to the other can lead to embarrassing—and dangerous—engine failures. • In an aircraft with a piston engine, adjusting the mixture control to make sure the air/fuel mixture entering the engine is appropriate as the aircraft changes altitude. Turbine-powered aircraft have automatic fuel control systems that manage fuel flow. TIP: You can make managing the fuel system and operating the engines in Flight Simulator more challenging by changing options on the Fuel tab of the Aircraft Settings dialog box. For more information, see the topic "Setting Fuel Options" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Pilot's Help. Related Topics Setting Fuel Options Piston Engines: Basic Principles Piston Engine Controls Minimum Fuel for VFR Flight (FAR 91.151) IFR Fuel Requirements (FAR 91.167)


Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments
	Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments Three of the six primary flight instruments use gyroscopes to provide pilots with critical flight information about the airplane's attitude, heading, and rate of turn. Rigidity in Space and Precession Gyroscopes work like spinning tops. They have two properties—rigidity in space and precession—that make them useful in flight instruments. The attitude indicator and heading indicator are based on a gyro's rigidity in space. Because a gyro resists being tipped over, it can provide a stable reference to the real horizon or to a specific direction. The turn coordinator uses precession to display information about the direction and rate of turn. Gyro Power In most light airplanes, an engine-driven vacuum pump spins the gyros in the attitude indicator and the heading indicator. To provide a backup if the vacuum fails, the turn coordinator usually has a gyro spun by an electric motor. TIP: To test your ability to fly after one or more instruments fail, you can hide certain instruments or make them unreliable. For more information, see the topic "Setting Instrument Options" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Pilot's Help. Related Topics   Attitude Indicator Heading Indicator Turn Coordinator Setting Instrument Options


Attitude Indicator
	Attitude Indicator Sometimes called the "artificial horizon," the attitude indicator is the only instrument that simultaneously displays both pitch and bank information. How It Works The gyro mounted in the attitude indicator rotates in the horizontal plane and maintains its orientation relative to the real horizon as the airplane banks, climbs, and descends. Note, however, that the attitude indicator alone can't tell you whether the airplane is maintaining level flight, climbing, or descending. It simply shows the aircraft's attitude relative to the horizon. To determine your flight path, you must crosscheck the airspeed indicator, altimeter, heading indicator, and other instruments. The pointer at the top of the attitude indicator moves along a scale with marks at 10, 20, 30, 60, and 90 degrees of bank. The horizontal lines show the aircraft's pitch attitude in degrees above or below the horizon. The converging white lines in the bottom section of the indicator can also help you establish specific bank angles. Limitations The gyros in the attitude indicators used in most small aircraft tumble if the pitch attitude exceeds +/-70 degrees or if the angle of bank exceeds 100 degrees. When the gyro tumbles, it gives unreliable indications until it realigns itself, a process that usually requires several minutes of straight and level flight. Aerobatic and large aircraft are often equipped with gyros that are reliable through 360 degrees of pitch and bank. Many modern attitude indicators have a blue "sky" and brown "earth," which is the origin of the phrase "keep the blue side up." Related Topics Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments Heading Indicator Turn Coordinator Setting Instrument Options


Heading Indicator
	Heading Indicator The heading indicator, sometimes called the "directional gyro" or "DG," is one of the three gyro instruments. When aligned with the compass, it provides an accurate, stable indication of the aircraft's magnetic heading. The heading indicator is an important aid because the compass is subject to errors caused by acceleration, deceleration, and the curvature of the earth's magnetic field, especially at high latitudes. The compass often oscillates or leads or lags a turn and it is especially hard to read in turbulence or during maneuvers. (To see how difficult it is to fly with only a compass, you can display a compass in a separate window. On the Views menu, click Instrument Panel and then click Compass.) How It Works The gyro in the heading indicator rotates in the vertical plane. A card marked with headings maintains its orientation as the airplane turns. The apparent movement of the card gives the pilot an immediate, precise indication of the airplane's heading and the direction in which the airplane is turning. The card is marked off in five-degree increments, with numbers every 30 degrees and the cardinal directions indicated by N, S, E, W. Aligning the Heading Indicator On small aircraft like the Cessna 182RG, the pilot sets the heading indicator to coincide with the compass before takeoff and resets it periodically during flight to make sure that it remains in sync with the compass. The heading indicator drifts because it's based on a gyro, which precesses with time. As a rule, the heading should drift no more than three degrees every 15 minutes. Larger aircraft usually have "slaved" heading indicators that automatically keep the instrument properly aligned with the compass. NOTE: You can make the heading indicator drift in Flight Simulator by selecting the Gyro Drift option on the Instrument tab of the Preferences dialog box. Related Topics Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments Attitude Indicator Turn Coordinator Customizing Flight Simulator Preferences Setting Instrument Options


Turn Coordinator
	Turn Coordinator The turn coordinator is really two instruments. The gyro portion shows the aircraft's rate of turn—how fast it's changing direction. A ball in a tube called the "inclinometer" or "slip/skid indicator" shows the quality of the turn—whether the turn is "coordinated." How It Works The gyro in the turn coordinator is usually mounted at a 30-degree angle. When the airplane turns, forces cause the gyro to precess. The rate of precession makes a miniature airplane on the face of the instrument bank left or right. The faster the turn, the greater the precession, and the steeper the bank of the miniature airplane. Standard Rate Turn When the wings of the miniature airplane align with the small lines next to the "L" and "R," the aircraft is making a standard rate turn, which in the Cessna 182RG is three degrees per second. This means the aircraft completes a 360-degree turn in two minutes. Balancing Act The black ball in the slip/skid indicator stays between the two vertical reference lines when the forces in a turn are balanced and the airplane is in coordinated flight. If the ball drops toward the inside of the turn, the airplane is slipping. If the ball moves toward the outside of the turn, the airplane is skidding. To correct a skid, reduce rudder pressure being held in the direction of the turn and/or increase the bank angle. To correct a slip, add rudder pressure in the direction of the turn and/or decrease the bank angle. The auto-coordination feature in Flight Simulator automatically moves the rudder to maintain coordinated flight. Useful Backup The turn coordinator is usually electrically powered so that it's available if the vacuum pump fails and disables the attitude indicator and heading indicator. Needle and Ball The turn coordinator is common in modern light aircraft such as the Cessna 182RG. Older airplanes often have a similar instrument called the "turn and slip indicator" or the "needle and ball," which uses a different presentation to display the same information. Related Topics Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments Attitude Indicator Heading Indicator Turning Auto-Coordination On and Off Setting Instrument Options


The Pitot Static Instruments
	The Pitot Static Instruments Three of the six primary flight instruments measure air pressure. These instruments—the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator—are called the pitot static instruments. All three pitot static instruments are connected to a static port. This port, or intake, introduces outside air into the case of each instrument. As an airplane climbs or descends, air pressure decreases or increases. The altimeter and vertical speed indicator display these pressure changes as altitude and rate of climb or descent. The airspeed indicator, which is also connected to the pitot tube, measures the difference between static pressure and ram air pressure in the pitot tube. It displays the pressure difference as speed, usually in knots or Mach number. TIP: To test your ability to fly after one or more instruments fail, you can hide certain instruments or make them unreliable. For more information, see the topic "Setting Instrument Options" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. Related Topics Airspeed Indicator Altimeter Vertical Speed Indicator Setting Instrument Options


Airspeed Indicator
	Airspeed Indicator The airspeed indicator is a differential pressure gauge. It measures the difference between the air pressure in the pitot tube and the static, relatively undisturbed air surrounding the airplane. A needle displays this difference as airspeed. Aircraft manufactured in the U.S. after 1976 have airspeed indicators with markings based on indicated airspeed in knots. Older aircraft typically have markings that reflect calibrated airspeed in statute miles per hour. How It Works The airspeed indicator is the only instrument connected to both the pitot tube and the static system. Air from the static system fills the case of the airspeed indicator, providing a "base" pressure against an expandable diaphragm. Ram air forced into the pitot tube as the airplane moves fills the diaphragm, which expands as ram air pressure (and speed) increase. A needle connected to the diaphragm rotates as the diaphragm expands. The needle's position on the instrument face indicates airspeed. The airspeed indicators for the Learjet 45 and Boeing 737-400 include an additional needle with red and white stripes called the "barber pole." A flight data computer takes information about the current altitude, air temperature, and pressure and continuously computes the maximum allowable airspeed as the aircraft climbs and descends. The barber pole shows this speed. NOTE: The speeds used in Flight Simulator checklists, operating procedures, and in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help are all indicated airspeeds unless otherwise noted. TIP: Flight Simulator displays indicated airspeed by default for a more realistic flying experience. As you climb, indicated airspeed decreases while true airspeed increases. The higher you climb, the greater the difference between IAS and TAS. To display true airspeed instead, choose Preferences from the Options menu and select the Display True Airspeed option on the Instrument tab of the Preferences dialog box. To test your ability to fly after one or more instruments fail, you can hide certain instruments or make them unreliable. For more information, see the topic "Setting Instrument Options" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. Related Topics Airspeed Indicator Markings Important Airspeeds The Pitot Static Instruments Altimeter Vertical Speed Indicator


Types of Airspeed
	Types of Airspeed Variations in air pressure as altitude changes, errors in the pitot-static system, and other factors make determining airspeed more complicated than just reading a number on a dial. You should be familiar with several types of airspeed, each useful in different circumstances. • Indicated airspeed (IAS) is the reading taken directly from airspeed indicator. It's the number that the needle points to on the dial. This value is not corrected for variations in the density of the atmosphere, installation error (caused by the position of the pitot tube and static ports), or errors caused by the instrument itself. Indicated airspeed drops as you climb, because as the density of the air decreases with altitude, fewer air molecules hit the pitot tube. This effect is most noticeable in high-performance aircraft that operate at high altitude. For example, at cruise altitude, the airspeed indicator on the Boeing 737-400 may indicate about 280 knots when the airplane's actual speed through the air is more than 400 knots. Pilots use indicated airspeed to get the proper performance from their aircraft. Takeoff, climb, approach, and landing speeds are all based on IAS. • Calibrated airspeed (CAS) is indicated airspeed corrected for installation error and instrument error. The difference between indicated airspeed and calibrated airspeed is usually greatest at low airspeeds, when the air flow around the static ports is turbulent. The position of the pitot tube and the installation of the airspeed indicator itself also contribute small errors to the airspeed indicator. Lowering the flaps may also increase the difference between IAS and CAS. To compensate for these errors, pilots refer to tables in the aircraft handbook to determine calibrated airspeed (CAS) under various conditions of flight. • True airspeed (TAS) is the actual speed of an aircraft through the air. The airspeed indicator displays TAS only at sea level under standard conditions, so you must calculate TAS based on IAS, the current pressure altitude, and air temperature. As a rule of thumb, you can estimate TAS by adding 2 percent to IAS for each 1,000 ft (305 m) of altitude. Pilots use TAS in navigation calculations and when filing flight plans. • Mach number is the ratio of the aircraft's true airspeed to the speed of sound. Aircraft that operate at high altitudes use Mach number, not airspeed, as a reference for aircraft performance and navigation, because the airspeed indicator is subject to many errors at high speeds in the thin air of the upper atmosphere. Mach number is calculated by a computer and displayed on the airspeed indicator. NOTE: The speeds used in Flight Simulator checklists, operating procedures, and in the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help are indicated airspeeds unless otherwise noted. TIP: Flight Simulator displays indicated airspeed by default for a more realistic flying experience. To display true airspeed instead, choose Preferences from the Options menu and select the Display True Airspeed option on the Instrument tab of the Preferences dialog box. Related Topics Important Airspeeds Airspeed Indicator Markings V Speeds for Large Aircraft Airspeed Indicator Altimeter Vertical Speed Indicator


Airspeed Indicator Markings
	Airspeed Indicator Markings The airspeed indicators in light aircraft are color coded to emphasize important airspeed limitations. Green Arc: Normal Operating Range The green arc shows the normal operating range of the airplane. The speed at the bottom of the green arc, abbreviated Vs1, is the stall speed with the flaps and landing gear retracted, power at idle, and the airplane at maximum gross weight. The top of the green arc shows the high end of the normal operating range, the maximum structural cruising speed, abbreviated Vno. Yellow Arc: Caution Range The yellow arc represents the caution range—speeds appropriate only in smooth air. The top of the yellow arc coincides with Vne, the never-exceed speed of the airplane. Red Line: Never-Exceed Speed A red line near the top of the airspeed range marks Vne. Exceeding this speed even in smooth air could damage the airplane structure. White Arc: Flap Operating Range The white arc shows the range of speeds in which it's safe to extend full flaps. The upper limit of the white arc is called Vfe, maximum flap extended speed. Extending the flaps at higher speeds could cause structural damage. The lower limit of the white arc, abbreviated Vso, is the stalling speed or minimum steady flight speed at maximum gross weight with the flaps and landing gear in the landing position. Other Airspeed Markings Multiengine airplanes (except large aircraft) have two additional airspeed markings. • A red line near the lower limit of the airspeed range indicates minimum controllable airspeed, Vmc. This is the lowest speed at which the airplane is controllable when one engine is inoperative and the other engine is operating at full power. • A blue line on the airspeed indicator marks best single-engine rate of climb airspeed (Vyse). This speed delivers the best rate of climb with one engine inoperative. "Bug" Speeds Airspeed indicators on large aircraft like the Boeing 737-400 don't have these markings because the speeds they represent vary considerably depending on aircraft weight, power settings, and other factors. Pilots calculate these speeds before each takeoff and use markers called "bugs" on the airspeed indicator as reminders of those speeds under current conditions. Related Topics Airspeed Indicator Types of Airspeed Important Airspeeds V Speeds for Large Aircraft Altimeter Vertical Speed Indicator


Important Airspeeds
	Important Airspeeds Several important speeds aren't marked on the airspeed indicator of a typical light aircraft. Pilots must memorize these speeds, which are listed in the aircraft operating handbook. • Va is the maneuvering speed; the maximum speed at which abrupt control movements or severe turbulence will induce a stall without damaging the aircraft's structure. This is the speed to use when flying in turbulent air. • Vx is the best angle of climb speed; the speed to fly to gain the most altitude per unit of distance covered over the ground. Use Vx to climb over obstacles immediately after takeoff. • Vy is the best rate of climb speed; the speed to fly to gain the most altitude per unit of time. Use Vy to gain altitude quickly after clearing obstacles. • Vlo is the maximum landing gear operating speed; the highest speed at which you should extend or retract the landing gear. • Vle is the maximum landing gear extended speed; the highest speed at which you should fly with the landing gear extended. • Vfe is the maximum flaps extended speed, the highest speed at which you should fly with flaps extended. Related Topics V Speeds for Large Aircraft Airspeed Indicator Markings Airspeed Indicator Altimeter Vertical Speed Indicator


V Speeds for Large Aircraft
	V Speeds for Large Aircraft Pilots of large aircraft or multiengine aircraft use additional key airspeeds. They calculate these speeds from aircraft performance charts before each takeoff, considering aircraft weight, weather conditions, runway length, and other factors. • Vmc is the minimum control speed; the lowest speed at which the airplane is controllable when one engine is inoperative and the other engine is operating at full power. • V1 is the takeoff decision speed; the speed at which the pilot decides whether to continue or abort a takeoff during the takeoff roll. • Vr is rotation speed; the speed at which the pilot raises the nose to lift off the runway during the takeoff roll. • V2 is takeoff safety speed; the speed used immediately after takeoff before accelerating to initial climb speed. If you're flying a large aircraft at high altitude, you'll also use Mach number. Aircraft that operate at high altitudes use Mach number, not airspeed, as a reference for aircraft performance and navigation, because the airspeed indicator is subject to many errors at high speeds in the thin air of the upper atmosphere. Mach number is calculated by a computer and displayed on the airspeed indicator. Related Topics Airspeed Indicator Markings Airspeed Indicator Altimeter Vertical Speed Indicator


Altimeter
	Altimeter The altimeter is a sensitive barometer that measures air pressure. It's calibrated to display that air pressure as height, usually in feet above mean sea level (MSL). How It Works The altimeter is connected to the static ports. The air pressure inside the instrument case decreases as the airplane climbs and increases as it descends. As the pressure in the case drops, sealed wafers in the instrument case expand. Increasing pressure squeezes the wafers. As the wafers expand and contract, needles connected to them rotate around the altimeter dial like hands on a watch. Reading the Altimeter Most small aircraft are equipped with two-needle altimeters. The long needle shows hundreds of feet. The short needle points to thousands of feet. A wedge-shaped striped indicator appears whenever the current altitude is less than 10,000 ft (3,048 m). For example, if the long needle is on 5 and the short needle is between the 2 and 3, you're at 2,500 ft (762 m) MSL. If the striped indicator isn't visible, the same needle orientation shows that you're at 12,500 ft (3,810 m) MSL. Jets and other high-performance aircraft typically have "needle and drum" altimeters. A long needle shows hundreds of feet and an odometer-like display shows altitude in numerical form. Setting the Altimeter To display altitude accurately, the altimeter must be set to the current barometric pressure adjusted to sea-level pressure. This setting appears in the Kohlsman window—the scale between the "2" and "3" on the dial. Before takeoff, the pilot turns a setting knob to set the correct pressure. When properly set, the altimeter indicates the airport elevation—not zero—before the airplane takes off. Pilots can get the current altimeter setting from ATIS broadcasts, air traffic controllers, and Flight Service Stations (FSS). If one of these sources isn't available, the pilot should set the altimeter so that it displays the elevation of the departure airport. TIP: To set the altimeter to the current atmospheric pressure, press B. For a realistic flying experience, you can make the atmospheric pressure change gradually in Flight Simulator as you fly. For more information about this feature, see the topic "Changing Barometric Pressure" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. Related Topics Setting the Altimeter Types of Altitude Airspeed Indicator The Pitot Static Instruments Changing Barometric Pressure


Types of Altitude
	Types of Altitude The altimeter in an airplane is designed to show height above sea level, MSL. The instrument is calibrated to show that height under standard atmospheric conditions. The current temperature and pressure rarely match standard conditions, however, so pilots must understand several types of altitude and know how to correct for altimeter errors caused by nonstandard conditions. • Indicated altitude is the altitude shown on the altimeter. If the altimeter is set to the current atmospheric pressure corrected to sea level, indicated altitude is approximately equal to the aircraft's height above sea level (MSL). • Pressure altitude is the altitude shown on the altimeter when the pressure is set to 29.92 in. of mercury (or 1012.2 mb). Pressure altitude is important in calculating density altitude, a critical factor in determining aircraft performance, true airspeed, and true altitude. In the U.S., aircraft fly at pressure altitudes or "flight levels" when operating at or above 18,000 ft MSL(5,486 m). That's why you must set the altimeter to 29.92 whenever you fly at or above 18,000 ft or FL (flight level) 180 (5,486 m). • Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for deviations from standard temperature. You must calculate density altitude to determine how much runway your airplane will need to take off and land and its rate of climb. Calculating density altitude is especially important on a hot day when you're operating from an airport with an elevation well above sea level. • True altitude is your actual height above sea level. If you set the altimeter to local pressure corrected to sea level, indicated altitude is approximately true altitude. • Absolute altitude is your height at any instant above the terrain. Unless your aircraft is equipped with a radio or radar altimeter, you must estimate absolute altitude by comparing your indicated altitude with the terrain elevations shown on charts. • Radio (radar altitude) Large aircraft are equipped with radio or radar altimeters that display absolute altitude. Pilots use radio or radar altitude during the final phases of approach and landing, particularly when the ceiling and visibility are low, to help them determine decision height. Related Topics Altimeter Altimeter Errors


Altimeter Errors
	Altimeter Errors The altimeter is calibrated to display the correct height above mean sea level when the temperature and pressure of the atmosphere match standard conditions. Variations in temperature usually don't cause significant errors, but if atmospheric pressure doesn't change at the standard rate, the altimeter won't display the correct altitude unless the pilot periodically adjusts the altimeter setting to the local atmospheric pressure (corrected to sea level). In fact, FAA regulations require you to use the proper altimeter setting as you fly (see FAR 91.121). From a High to a Low For example, suppose the altimeter is set to 30.10 inches before takeoff. If the airplane travels to an airport surrounded by a low-pressure system and the pilot does not change the altimeter setting, the altimeter senses the lower pressure as higher altitude. In other words, the altimeter shows an altitude higher than the airplane's actual height above sea level. Although the pilot thinks the airplane is at the correct altitude, it may be in conflict with other aircraft in the area whose pilots are using the correct local altimeter setting. Related Topics Altimeter Settings (FAR 91.121) Airspeed Indicator Vertical Speed Indicator


Vertical Speed Indicator
	Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) The vertical speed indicator (sometimes called the VSI or rate-of-climb indicator) shows how fast an aircraft is climbing or descending. The VSI is usually calibrated in feet per minute. Pilots use the VSI primarily during instrument flight to help them establish the correct rate of descent during approaches and to maintain steady rates of climb or descent. How It Works The VSI is connected to the static system. Air pressure inside the instrument case decreases as the airplane climbs and increases as the airplane descends. Inside the case, a sealed wafer, much like the one used in the altimeter, expands and contracts as the pressure changes. A needle connected to the wafer rotates as the wafer expands and contracts, indicating a rate of climb or descent. The wafer also has a small, calibrated leak to allow the pressure in the wafer to equalize with the pressure in the case when the airplane levels off. When the pressure inside the wafer equals the pressure in the case, the needle returns to zero, indicating level flight. Reading the VSI You shouldn't use the VSI as the primary indicator of whether you're maintaining level flight. If the airplane begins to climb or descend, the VSI initially indicates the change in the proper direction. But the indicator takes several seconds to catch up to the aircraft's actual rate of climb or descent. "Chasing" the needle on the VSI can make you feel like you're riding a roller-coaster. Rely instead on the airspeed indicator and altimeter—they give quick, accurate indications of deviations from level flight. Then cross-check the VSI to verify that the airplane is climbing or descending at the rate you want. The VSI in the Learjet 45 and Boeing 737-400 looks almost identical to the Cessna model. But the scale has a bigger range—up to +/-6,000 fpm (1,830 m/min). Related Topics Airspeed Indicator Altimeter The Pitot Static Instruments


Aircraft Engines
	Aircraft Engines Knowledge of a few general principles of engine operation helps pilots operate engines efficiently, extends the operating life of the power plant, and helps avoid engine failures. Most airplanes are powered by reciprocating piston engines or gas turbine engines—either turboprop or pure jet power plants. Most modern jet engines are turbofans, a more efficient, quieter, and powerful development of early turbojet engines. This section of Pilot's Help provides general information about aircraft engines. You should always follow the recommendations in the aircraft operating handbook and specific advice from a flight instructor to operate a specific airplane engine properly. NOTE: To learn how to use the engine controls in Flight Simulator, see the topics in the "Using Joysticks, the Mouse, and the Keyboard" section of Pilot's Help. Related Topics Piston Engines: Basic Principles Engines with Carburetors Fuel-Injected Engines Propellers Piston Engine Controls Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


Piston Engines: Basic Principles
	Piston Engines: Basic Principles Reciprocating piston engines are the most common power plants on general aviation aircraft. These engines are virtually identical to automobile engines, with three important exceptions: • Most aircraft engines are air cooled. This approach saves the weight of a radiator and coolant and adds a measure of safety. The loss of coolant or a failure of the cooling system in a liquid-cooled engine quickly causes complete engine failure. • Aircraft engines have dual ignition systems, with the energy to create the spark generated by magnetos. A magneto, turned by the crankshaft, isn't dependent on the aircraft battery. Each cylinder also has two spark plugs. If one plug or magneto fails, the other provides a spark to burn fuel. • Because an aircraft engine operates throughout a wide range of altitudes, the power controls include a manual mixture control that the pilot uses to maintain the proper air/fuel ratio as the airplane climbs and descends. Carburetors and Fuel Injectors Most piston engines used in aircraft have either a carburetor or fuel injection system to deliver fuel and air to the cylinders. The carburetor mixes fuel and air before it enters the cylinders. Carburetors are common on smaller engines because they're relatively inexpensive. Larger engines usually have fuel-injection systems, which squirt fuel directly into the cylinders, where it mixes with air during the intake stroke. Related Topics Engines with Carburetors Fuel-Injected Engines Propellers Piston Engine Controls


The Four-Stroke Cycle
	The Four-Stroke Cycle A typical piston engine operates according to a four-stroke cycle. • Intake: The piston moves down in the cylinder, drawing in air and fuel through the open intake valve. • Compression: The intake and exhaust valves in the cylinder close and the piston moves up in the cylinder, compressing the fuel-air mixture. • Power: As the piston nears the top of the cylinder during the compression stroke, a burst of electricity from the ignition system generates a spark in the spark plugs. The sparks ignite the air/fuel mixture, which expands rapidly as it burns. The force of this expansion drives the piston back down in the cylinder. As the piston moves down, it turns the crankshaft, which turns the propeller. • Exhaust: When the piston reaches the bottom of the cylinder, the exhaust valve opens. The piston then moves back up in the cylinder, pushing the burned air/fuel mixture out of the cylinder. Each cylinder cycles through these four strokes in turn, ensuring that at least one piston is always producing power. Related Topics Engines with Carburetors Fuel-Injected Engines Propellers Piston Engine Controls


Engines with Carburetors
	Engines with Carburetors Most aircraft piston engines of less than about 200 hp use carburetors to combine air and fuel to create a combustible mixture that burns in the cylinders. The Cessna Skylane RG in Flight Simulator has an engine with a carburetor. How a Carburetor Works Outside air flows through an air filter, then into the carburetor. The air flows through a venturi, a narrow throat in the carburetor. The air accelerates in the venturi and its pressure drops according to Bernoulli's principle. The partial vacuum forces fuel to flow through a jet into the airstream where it mixes with the flowing air. The air/fuel mixture then flows into the intake manifold, which routes it to each cylinder. The Right Ratio The carburetor mixes air and fuel by weight. Piston engines generally produce maximum power when the air/fuel mixture is about 15:1. Carburetors are calibrated at sea-level pressure to meter the correct amount of fuel with the mixture control in the full rich position. As altitude increases, air density decreases. To compensate for this difference, the pilot uses the mixture control to adjust the air/fuel mixture entering the combustion chamber. To control the amount of fuel that mixes with the air, most carburetors use a float in a fuel chamber. A needle attached to the float opens and closes an opening in the fuel line, metering the correct amount of fuel into the carburetor. The position of the float, controlled by the fuel level in the float chamber, determines when the valve opens and closes. Running Rich A air/fuel mixture that is too rich—too much fuel for the current weight of air—causes excessive fuel consumption, rough engine operation, and loss of power. Running an engine too rich also cools the engine, causing below-normal temperatures in the combustion chambers, which leads to spark plug fouling among other problems. Running Lean Operating with the mixture too lean—too little fuel for the current weight of air—results in rough engine operation, detonation, overheating, and a loss of power. Related Topics Carburetor Ice Fuel-Injected Engines Piston Engine Controls


Carburetor Ice
	Carburetor Ice Vaporization of fuel and expansion of the air in the carburetor causes sudden cooling of the air/fuel mixture. The temperature may drop as much as 60 degrees F (15 degrees C) within a fraction of a second. This cooling causes water vapor in the air to condense, and if the temperature in the carburetor reaches 32 degrees F (0 C) the water freezes inside the carburetor passages. Even a slight accumulation of this deposit can restrict the flow of air into the carburetor, reducing power. Carburetor ice may also lead to complete engine failure, particularly when the throttle is partly or fully closed. Icing Conditions On dry days, or when the temperature is well below freezing, the moisture in the air generally doesn't cause carburetor ice. But if the temperature is between 20 degrees F (–7 degrees C) and 70 degrees F (21 degrees C), with visible moisture or high humidity, the pilot should be constantly on the alert for carburetor ice. Indications of Carburetor Icing For airplanes with fixed-pitch propellers, the first indication of carburetor icing is a drop in RPM on the tachometer. For airplanes with controllable pitch (constant-speed) propellers, the first indication is usually a drop in manifold pressure. In both cases, the engine may start to run rough. RPM remains constant in airplanes with constant-speed propellers. Thawing Out To prevent carburetor ice from forming and to eliminate ice that forms, carburetors are equipped with heaters. The carburetor heater preheats the air before it reaches the carburetor. This preheating melts ice or snow entering the intake, melts ice that forms in the carburetor passages (provided the accumulation is not too great), and keeps the air/fuel mixture above freezing to prevent formation of carburetor ice. Using Carburetor Heat When flying in conditions conducive to carburetor icing, monitor the engine instruments to watch for signs that ice is forming. If you suspect that carburetor ice is present, apply full carburetor heat immediately. Leave it on full until you're certain that all the ice has been removed. Applying partial heat or leaving heat on momentarily might aggravate the situation. When you first apply carburetor heat expect a drop in RPM in airplanes equipped with fixed-pitch propellers; in airplanes equipped with controllable pitch propellers, expect a drop in manifold pressure. If no carburetor ice is present, RPM or manifold pressure will remain lower than normal until the carburetor heat is turned off. If carburetor ice is present, expect a rise in RPM or manifold pressure after the initial drop (often accompanied by intermittent engine roughness). When you turn carburetor heat off, the RPM or manifold pressure rises above the value before heat was applied. The engine should also run more smoothly after the ice has melted. In extreme cases of carburetor icing, after the ice has been removed you may need to apply just enough carburetor heat to prevent further ice formation. Carburetor Heat as a Precaution Whenever the throttle is closed during flight, especially as you prepare to land, the engine cools rapidly and vaporization of the fuel is less complete than if the engine is warm. If you suspect carburetor icing conditions, apply full carburetor heat before closing the throttle and leave it on. More Power Use of carburetor heat tends to reduce the output of the engine and increase the operating temperature. Therefore, don't use carburetor heat when you need full power (as during takeoff) or during normal engine operation except to check for the presence or removal of carburetor ice. Related Topics Fuel-Injected Engines Piston Engine Controls


Fuel-Injected Engines
	Fuel-Injected Engines Piston engines rated at more than 200 hp often use a fuel-injection system rather than a carburetor. The Extra 300S in Flight Simulator is equipped with a fuel-injected engine. A fuel-injection system squirts fuel directly into the cylinders or just ahead of the intake valve. The fuel then mixes with air in the cylinders. Because this type of system requires high-pressure pumps, a air/fuel control unit, fuel distributor, and discharge nozzles for each cylinder, it's generally more expensive than a carburetor. As with an engine equipped with a carburetor, the pilot controls the flow of fuel by adjusting the mixture control. Advantages of Fuel Injection Fuel injection has several advantages over a carbureted fuel system which compensate for its greater cost and complexity. • No possibility of carburetor ice (although impact ice can block air intakes). • Better fuel flow. • Faster throttle response. • Precise control of mixture. • Better fuel distribution. • Easier cold weather starts. Disadvantages of Fuel Injection Fuel injection does have some disadvantages, the most important being: • Difficulty in starting a hot engine. • Vapor locks during ground operations on hot days. • Difficulty restarting an engine that quits because of fuel starvation. Related Topics Engines with Carburetors Piston Engine Controls


Ignition Systems
	Ignition Systems The ignition system provides a spark to ignite the air/fuel mixture in the cylinders of a piston engine. Most modern aircraft engines use magnetos to generate the spark. Although not as sophisticated as the electronic ignition systems used in the latest cars, magnetos are useful in aircraft because: • They produce a hotter spark at high engine speeds than the battery system used in automobiles. • They do not depend on an external source of energy such as a battery, a generator, or an alternator. Getting Started Magnetos generate electricity when they rotate. So, to start the engine, the pilot must engage a battery-powered starter that rotates the crankshaft. After the magnetos begin rotating, they supply the spark to each cylinder to ignite the air/fuel mixture and the starter system is disengaged. The battery no longer has any part in the operation of the engine. If the battery (or master) switch is turned off, the engine continues to run. Dual Ignition Most aircraft engines are equipped with a dual ignition system—two magnetos that supply electrical current to two spark plugs for each cylinder. One magneto system supplies the current to one set of plugs; the second system supplies the current to the other set of plugs. This is why the ignition switch has five positions: OFF, L (LEFT), R (RIGHT), BOTH, and START. With the switch in the L or R position, only one magneto supplies current and only one set of spark plugs fires. With the switch in the BOTH position, both magnetos supply current and both sets of spark plugs fire. Advantages of Dual Ignition Aircraft have dual ignition systems for safety and efficiency. • If one magneto system fails, the engine can operate on the other system until you can make a safe landing. • Two spark plugs improve burning and combustion of the mixture, delivering improved performance. Operating the Ignition System You should turn the ignition switch to BOTH after starting the engine and leave it on BOTH during flight. Turn it OFF after shutting down the engine. If you leave the ignition switch on BOTH or LEFT or RIGHT, the engine could fire if the propeller is moved from outside the airplane—even if the electrical master switch is off. Before Takeoff Check To make sure both ignition systems are operating properly, check each system during the engine runup before takeoff. The normal procedure is to set the power at about 1700 RPM. Turn the ignition switch from BOTH to RIGHT, then back to BOTH, then to LEFT, and then back to BOTH. You should see a slight drop in RPM each time you switch from BOTH to either RIGHT or LEFT. If both magnetos are functioning normally, the drop should be no more than about 75 RPM. Shutting Down the Engine You should not shut down a piston engine by turning the ignition switch to OFF. Instead, move the mixture control to the idle cutoff position to turn off the fuel supply to the cylinders. After the engine stops, turn the ignition switch to OFF. This procedure ensures that no fuel remains in the cylinders and that the engine won't start accidentally if someone turns the prop or if carbon deposits inside the cylinders create hot spots that ignite residual fuel. Related Topic Piston Engine Controls


Propellers
	Propellers Piston engines are typically connected to a fixed-pitch or a constant-speed propeller. • Fixed-pitch propellers are bolted directly to the crankshaft of the engine and therefore always turn at the same speed as the engine. A fixed-pitch prop is somewhat like a transmission with only one gear. This configuration makes up for its lack of efficiency by being very simple to operate. The only gauge that you need to monitor is the tachometer. • A constant-speed propeller has a governor that adjusts the angle of the blades to maintain the RPM you select. This type of propeller makes much more efficient use of the engine's power. At low speed when maximum power is required (as during takeoff), you select maximum RPM or "full increase" with the propeller control, and the prop blades meet the air at a small angle. During cruise, you adjust the RPM to a lower setting, and the prop blades take a bigger bite of the air while turning a lower speed.  Managing the Power With a fixed-pitch propeller, managing power is simple. Push the throttle in, and RPM (and power) increases. Pull the throttle out, and RPM decreases. Be aware, however, that as airspeed increases, RPM tends to creep up, too. Monitor the tachometer carefully during descents at high speed to make sure that the RPM stays within limits. A constant-speed propeller makes power management a bit more complicated. You must monitor the manifold pressure gauge, controlled by the throttle, and the tachometer, which shows the propeller RPM. You adjust RPM with the prop control. When setting power with a constant-speed propeller, remember these basic rules to avoid overstressing the engine: • To increase power, first increase RPM by advancing the prop control, then increase manifold pressure with the throttle. • To decrease power, first reduce manifold pressure with the throttle, then decrease RPM with the prop control. Related Topic Piston Engine Controls


Piston Engine Controls
	Piston Engine Controls Most modern piston engines have two or three basic controls. • A throttle, the control that has the most direct effect on power. • Prop control (if the aircraft is equipped with a constant-speed propeller) to adjust the propeller RPM. • Mixture control to adjust the air/fuel mixture as the airplane climbs and descends. Carbureted engines also have carburetor heat to prevent the formation of or to melt carburetor ice. Engines of about 200 hp or more usually have cowl flaps to allow the pilot to adjust the amount of cooling air that flows over the engine. Opening the cowl flaps is especially important during high-power operations such as takeoff and prolonged climbs. Related Topics Propellers Engines with Carburetors Fuel-Injected Engines


Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation
	Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine engines, whether turboprops or turbofans, have replaced piston engines on most large aircraft, and they've become increasingly popular on executive aircraft with the development of small, efficient turbofan engines. How It Works The turbines in a turbine engine are fan-like structures. Blades arrayed around a shaft catch air flowing through the engine and turn the central engine shaft. Most modern turbine engines have several turbines that compress the incoming air in stages before it reaches the combustion chamber. Additional turbines in the exhaust area of the engine capture some of the energy from the exhaust and keep the turbine shaft rotating. All turbine engines operate according to the same basic principle. A combustible mixture of fuel and air is drawn into the engine. The air and fuel mix in a combustion chamber, where the mixture is ignited. The hot exhaust gas shoots out the rear of the engine at high speed, pushing the airplane ahead. As the hot air flows through the engine, it turns additional turbines in the exhaust stream, which keep the shaft spinning at a high RPM, usually more than 10,000 revolutions per minute. Turbofan Engines A turbofan engine has a large-diameter turbine at the front of the engine that accelerates a large mass of air that flows around the central engine core and out the back. This arrangement makes more efficient use of fuel and is much quieter than the older turbojet technology. Turboprop Engines A turboprop engine is a jet engine attached to a propeller. The high-speed turbines generate an enormous amount of power that is transmitted to the propeller through a gear-reduction system. The propeller is really a large fan turned by the turbine. Turboprop engines are much more efficient than pure jet engines at speeds in the 250–350 mph (400–560 km/h) range. At higher speeds, propellers lose their efficiency, and pure jet engines are a better choice. Related Topic Turbine Engine Controls


Turbine Engine Controls
	Turbine Engine Controls From a pilot's perspective, turbine engines are much easier to operate than piston engines. Aircraft equipped with turbofan engines like the Learjet 45 and Boeing 737-400 have one power control—the thrust levers. Automatic fuel control systems take care of mixing fuel and air in the combustion chamber, and there's no propeller control to worry about. To increase power, move the thrust levers forward. To reduce power, move them back. Keep in mind, however, that it takes a while for jet engines to develop full power or "spool up." It's very important to anticipate the need for more power. Watch the Temperatures By far the most important consideration when operating a turbine engine is temperature control. If you shove the thrust levers forward on takeoff, you can easily overheat the engines. If you don't cause an engine failure, at the least you'll run up a very large bill for inspection and repair of critical engine components. So watch the exhaust gas temperature (EGT) and inlet turbine temperature (ITT) gauges carefully when you add power. Keep the needles out of the red zones. Reverse Thrust The Learjet 45 and Boeing 737-400 are equipped with thrust reversers that deflect the engines' exhaust forward to help the airplane slow down after landing. To activate the thrust reversers in Flight Simulator, reduce power to idle and then press KEYPAD 3 several times or hold down F2. Remember to come out of reverse thrust as the airplane slows to 60 knots. Related Topic Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation


FAR Part 61: Pilot Certification
	FAR Part 61: Pilot Certification Part 61 of the FARs deals with the certification of pilots and flight instructors. It lists the requirements for each pilot certificate and rating issued by the FAA. In addition, this section of the FARs describes testing procedures, lays out the rules for logging flight time, and explains other matters related to pilots. If you have questions about what it takes to become a pilot and what you can do with each pilot license, Part 61 is the place to look for the answers. Related Topics Pilots: Required Certificates (FAR 61.3) Rules and Regulations VFR Regulations IFR Regulations


Pilots: Required Certificates (FAR 61.3)
	Pilots: Required Certificates (FAR 61.3) FAR 61.3 says that if you intend to act as pilot in command or as a required flight crew member, you must have a valid pilot certificate or special purpose pilot authorization in your physical possession or readily accessible in the aircraft when exercising the privileges of that pilot certificate or authorization. You must also carry a current medical certificate (unless you are piloting a glider or balloon). Additional Requirements You cannot fly in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) unless you have an instrument rating on your pilot certificate. As a practical matter, if the visibility is less than 3 mi and you can't maintain a comfortable distance from all clouds (see FAR 91.155), you shouldn't fly unless you have an instrument rating. Visual flight into IMC is the most common cause of accidents. Related Topics Pilot Certificates and Ratings (FAR 61.5) VFR Regulations IFR Regulations


Pilot Certificates and Ratings (FAR 61.5)
	Pilot Certificates and Ratings (FAR 61.5) FAR 61.5 lists the pilot certificates issued by the FAA. Each pilot certificate requires specific training and flight experience and carries certain privileges and limitations. • Student pilot. A student pilot flies under the direct supervision of a certified flight instructor. A student pilot must operate under visual meteorological conditions, cannot carry passengers, cannot fly internationally, and cannot fly in conjunction with business. • Recreational pilot. This certificate is for people who want to enjoy short flights on sunny days. It comes with many restrictions, but the recreational pilot certificate offers an excellent introduction to aviation and lays the foundation for the private pilot certificate. • Private pilot. This certificate allows a pilot to carry passengers, day or night, in visual meteorological conditions (see FAR 91.155); flight under instrument meteorological conditions is allowed if the pilot also holds an instrument rating. A private pilot can fly internationally and in conjunction with business (see FAR 61.118). • Commercial pilot. A pilot with a commercial certificate can carry cargo or passengers for hire—but only under restrictions imposed by Part 135 of the FARs. Holding a commercial pilot certificate alone does not make you a charter pilot or an air taxi pilot—much less an airline pilot. An instrument rating is required if you carry passengers at night or more than 50 nm from the departure airport. • Airline Transport Pilot (ATP). This certificate is the "PhD" of pilot certificates. The pilot in command of an air carrier (airline) aircraft, or of a multiengine commuter aircraft, must have an ATP certificate. The copilot of such an aircraft needs only a commercial pilot certificate with an instrument rating and the appropriate category and class ratings. • Flight instructor. Only a certified flight instructor can give flight instruction for hire, approve student pilots for solo flight, and give instruction required for a pilot certificate or rating. A flight instructor must have an instrument instructor rating to give instrument instruction and a multiengine instructor rating to give multiengine instruction. Ratings Pilot certificates carry ratings that further specify the privileges that an individual pilot may exercise. Ratings come in two basic types, category and class. Category ratings include: • Airplane • Rotorcraft • Glider • Lighter-than-air Class ratings (for airplanes) include: • Single-engine land • Single-engine sea • Multiengine land • Multiengine sea Instrument Rating Another important rating is the instrument rating, which shows that a pilot is certified to fly in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). Type Ratings The pilot of a large aircraft or any turbojet-powered aircraft must have a type rating in each such aircraft. For example, a pilot certified to fly a Boeing 747 must pass a type rating check ride in a DC-10 before acting as pilot in command of that aircraft type. Nearly all aircraft that require type ratings also require both a pilot in command and a copilot. Carrying Passengers When discussing certificates and ratings it's important to note that you can't carry passengers without the right piece of paper in your pocket (students can't carry passengers under any conditions). If you hold a private pilot certificate with airplane and single-engine land ratings you can fly seaplanes or multiengine airplanes solo—provided an instructor has signed your logbook. But you can't carry passengers until you have taken the training and passed the check ride for the seaplane or twin. Related Topics Duration of Medical Certificates Pilot Certificates: General Provisions (FAR 61.31) VFR Regulations IFR Regulations


Offenses Involving Alcohol and Drugs (FAR 61.15)
	Offenses Involving Alcohol and Drugs (FAR 61.15) FAR 61.15 carries into your aviation life the same types of prohibitions against the use of drugs and alcohol that govern your actions as an automobile driver. If you are convicted of a drug offense or have your driver's license suspended or revoked for an alcohol offense, you must report this to the FAA, which can suspend or revoke any pilot certificate or rating that you hold. If you refuse to take a blood test, your pilot certificate will be suspended or revoked. If your driving record includes a conviction for driving while intoxicated, the FAA can refuse to issue you a pilot certificate or rating, even if you complete (and pay for) all of the required training for that certificate or rating. It's also unlikely that any airline would hire a pilot who has a drunken driving conviction, so if you're interested in a flying career, don't drink and drive. Legal Limits FAR 91.7 lists the specific rules relating to consumption of alcohol before flying, maximum blood alcohol level, and so forth. Related Topics Alcohol or Drugs (FAR 91.17) Careless or Reckless Operation (FAR 91.13) VFR Regulations IFR Regulations


Duration of Medical Certificates (FAR 61.23)
	Duration of Medical Certificates (FAR 61.23) FAR 61.23 governs the duration of medical certificates. Each medical certificate has different standards regarding eyesight, blood pressure, and other indications of a pilot's health. A third-class medical requires the least rigorous examination. The most stringent standards apply to the first-class medical. Third-Class Medical Briefly, a third-class medical certificate is good for 36 calendar months (it expires the last day of the month) if you are under age 40 on the date of examination and for 24 months if you are over age 40. To act as a private pilot you need at least a third-class medical. A third-class medical certificate is also a student pilot certificate. Second-Class Medical A second-class medical expires after 12 calendar months—if you are going to fly for money you need at least a second-class medical to accompany your commercial pilot certificate. If you are a student pilot but ask your Aviation Medical Examiner to administer a second-class examination because you expect to attain commercial pilot status within 36 months, be sure to ask for a student pilot certificate—it is a different form. First-Class Medical A first-class medical expires after six calendar months. You need a first-class medical to exercise the privileges of an airline transport pilot certificate (ATP). Many pilots who fly corporate turboprops and jets quickly learn that the company insurance policy requires them to have a first-class medical. Bending the Rules Read Part 67 in its entirety for the details. There are paraplegic pilots, deaf pilots, pilots with only one eye, and pilots with prosthetics who fly under the terms of a waiver issued after they demonstrate that they can operate an aircraft safely. There are very few conditions that prohibit you from obtaining at least a third-class medical. Related Topics Operations During Medical Deficiency (FAR 61.53) Pilots: Required Certificates (FAR 61.3)


Pilot Certificates: General Provisions (FAR 61.31)
	Pilot Certificates: General Provisions (FAR 61.31) FAR 61.31 establishes general conditions and limitations for pilot certificates. For example, you cannot act as pilot in command (PIC) of an airplane that has more than 200 horsepower unless you have received a checkout from an instructor and your logbook has been endorsed accordingly. This is called a high-performance endorsement. Similarly, you can't act as PIC of a pressurized airplane that has a maximum operating altitude above 25,000 ft (7620 m) unless you have received specific ground and flight training and have an appropriate endorsement in your logbook. At a lower level, you can't act as PIC of an airplane equipped with a tailwheel until you have received flight instruction in a tailwheel airplane and an instructor has found you competent to fly it. Related Topics Pilots: Required Certificates (FAR 61.3) Duration of Medical Certificates Operations During Medical Deficiency (FAR 61.53)


Pilot Logbooks (FAR 61.51)
	Pilot Logbooks (FAR 61.51) FAR 61.51 is a hot topic whenever pilots get together for some hangar flying. Whether you like it or not, logged flight hours is the unwritten standard by which pilots are judged, and this regulation tells you what can and cannot be logged. Pilots, FAA examiners, and flight instructors have offered some creative interpretations of this rule over the years. But the only judgment that really counts is the opinion of the pilot examiner or FAA inspector who checks your log book when you apply for a new pilot certificate or rating—or when you need to prove that you meet the currency requirements of FAR 61.57. The Basic Rule Remember you don't have to log all your flying time if you don't want to. The rules require only that you log time required to meet the qualifications for a pilot certificate or rating—or time necessary to prove that you are current to act as pilot in command (PIC). As a general guideline, here's the basic rule for logging flight time: A pilot holding a recreational, private, or commercial pilot certificate may log as pilot-in-command time only that flight time during which that pilot is the sole manipulator of the controls. The pilot must hold an appropriate pilot certificate and rating for the aircraft. An airline transport pilot may log as PIC time all of the flight time during which that pilot acts as PIC. A certified flight instructor may log as PIC time all flight time during which that pilot acts as PIC. Tracking Your Time Pilot-in-command time is what counts when you upgrade your certificate or apply for a flying job. You should break your PIC time into categories such as instrument (actual and simulated), night, cross-country, high-performance, multiengine, and so forth. Second-in-command time can only be logged in an airplane that is required to have two pilots or when you're operating under regulations that require two pilots. For example, if one pilot is wearing a view-limiting device to practice instrument flight procedures, the other pilot (the safety pilot) is a required crew member and can log second-in-command time. Presenting Your Logbook You are required to present your logbook upon a reasonable request by the FAA or other enforcement agency, but you do not have to carry it with you (unless you are a student pilot). Related Topics Flight Review (FAR 61.56) Recent Flight Experience: PIC (FAR 61.57) Maintaining IFR Currency (FAR 61.57)


Operations During Medical Deficiency (FAR 61.53)
	Operations During Medical Deficiency (FAR 61.53) FAR 61.53 says that a pilot whose physical condition does not meet the standards of the medical certificate held must ground himself or herself. Pilot, Ground Thyself If you have a head cold or other condition that would cause you to fail a medical examination, your medical certificate is invalid until you get better—and it is your responsibility to ground yourself. Related Topics Duration of Medical Certificates Pilots: Required Certificates (FAR 61.3)


Flight Review (FAR 61.56)
	Flight Review (FAR 61.56) FAR 61.56 says that to act as pilot in command, every holder of a pilot certificate must satisfactorily complete a flight review conducted by a certified instructor every 24 calendar months. This biennial flight review (BFR) must include at least one hour of ground instruction, one hour of flight instruction, and a general review of regulations. Other than that, the contents of the flight review are up to the instructor. No pilot can act as pilot in command without a current biennial flight review (BFR). A pilot who passes a check ride for a new pilot certificate or rating or completes a phase of an FAA-sponsored pilot proficiency program is given credit for a BFR. Related Topics Recent Flight Experience: PIC (FAR 61.57) Maintaining IFR Currency (FAR 61.57) Pilots: Required Certificates (FAR 61.3)


Recent Flight Experience: PIC (FAR 61.57)
	Recent Flight Experience: PIC (FAR 61.57) FAR 61.57 establishes the basic standards for currency. A pilot cannot carry passengers if he or she is not current in the category and class of the airplane involved. Three Landings Every 90 Days To be legal to carry passengers, within the 90 days preceding a proposed flight you must have made three takeoffs and landings in an aircraft of the same category and class as the aircraft you propose to use. If the flight is to be in a tailwheel airplane, you must make the takeoffs and landings to a full stop—touch-and-goes don't count. A pilot who is out of currency can, of course, go out and do the three takeoffs and landings alone before taxiing back to pick up the passengers—if he or she has a current biennial flight review as required under FAR 61.56. Night Currency If you plan to fly at night, in the preceding 90 days you must have made three full-stop landings during the period beginning one hour after sunset and ending one hour before sunrise. Related Topics Flight Review (FAR 61.56) Maintaining IFR Currency (FAR 61.57) Pilots: Required Certificates (FAR 61.3)


Additional Aircraft Ratings (FAR 61.63)
	Additional Aircraft Ratings (FAR 61.63) FAR 61.63 says that if you want to add a new rating to your pilot certificate you must present evidence of having taken the required flight instruction in the class of aircraft to be flown and then take a check ride with an examiner. Some ratings also require you to pass a knowledge test. Related Topics Pilot Certificates and Ratings (FAR 61.5) Pilot Certificates: General Provisions (FAR 61.31) Pilots: Required Certificates (FAR 61.3)


Student Pilots: Eligibility (FAR 61.83)
	Student Pilots: Eligibility (FAR 61.83) FAR 61.83 says that a student pilot must be at least 16 years of age and be able to speak, read, and understand the English language (or have an appropriate limitation placed on his or her pilot certificate), and must hold at least a third-class medical certificate. Students working toward a glider pilot certificate must be at least 14 years of age and must certify that they have no medical defects. Related Topics Pilot Certificates and Ratings (FAR 61.5) Pilots: Required Certificates (FAR 61.3) Duration of Medical Certificates (FAR 61.23)


Student Pilots: Solo Requirements (FAR 61.87)
	Student Pilots: Solo Requirements (FAR 61.87) FAR 61.87 lists the areas in which a student pilot must receive training before an instructor can certify that the student is ready for solo flight. For example, a student must: • Pass a pre-solo written test given by the instructor. • Demonstrate proficiency in preflight inspection of the aircraft, taxiing, normal and crosswind takeoffs and landings, straight and level flight, turns, climbs and climbing turns, flying airport traffic patterns, emergency procedures, and other flight maneuvers. If a student is taking training in different makes and models of aircraft, an instructor must place a solo endorsement for each make and model. A solo endorsement is good for only 90 days. When that time elapses, the instructor must make another entry in the student's logbook. Related Topics Student Pilots: Cross-Country Requirements (FAR 61.93) Student Pilots: General Limitations (FAR 61.89) Student Pilots: Eligibility (FAR 61.83)


Student Pilots: General Limitations (FAR 61.89)
	Student Pilots: General Limitations (FAR 61.89) FAR 61.89 places restrictions on student pilots. For example, student pilots: • Cannot carry passengers under any conditions • Cannot carry property for compensation or hire • Cannot fly in furtherance of a business • Cannot (with some exceptions in specific areas) fly internationally • Cannot fly when the flight or surface visibility is less than 3 mi (5 km) in the daytime and 5 mi (8 km) at night • Must fly by visual reference to the surface (no flight above a cloud layer) A flight instructor can place additional restrictions on a particular flight in a student's logbook and the student must observe those restrictions. Related Topics Student Pilots: Solo Requirements (FAR 61.87) Student Pilots: Cross-Country Requirements (FAR 61.93) Student Pilots: Eligibility (FAR 61.83)


Student Pilots: Cross-Country Requirements (FAR 61.93)
	Student Pilots: Cross-Country Requirements (FAR 61.93) FAR 61.93 provides details about student cross-country flights. In this section of the regulations, "cross-country" means a flight beyond a radius of 25 nm (46 km) from the point of departure. An instructor must approve each cross-country flight a student makes and indicate that approval by signing the student pilot's logbook. Before endorsing the student's logbook for cross-country flight, the instructor must ensure that the student is proficient at navigation using aeronautical charts, cross-country emergency procedures, and a variety of flight maneuvers. An instructor who has given flight instruction in both directions over a route can approve a student for repeated specific flights over that route, provided the distance is not more than 50 nm (93 km). This provision might come into play when the student's airplane is based at an airport other than the instructor's home base. Related Topics Student Pilots: Solo Requirements (FAR 61.87) Student Pilots: General Limitations (FAR 61.89) Student Pilots: Eligibility (FAR 61.83)


Student Pilots: Operations in Class B Airspace (FAR 61.95)
	Student Pilots: Operations in Class B Airspace (FAR 61.95) FAR 61.95 governs operations at busy airports surrounded by Class B airspace.  A student pilot cannot fly into the airspace surrounding one of these airports or land at the primary airport unless an instructor has given that student instruction in that airspace and endorsed the student's logbook. This endorsement must be renewed every 90 days. The same restriction applies if the destination is not a busy airport but another airport located within the Class B airspace. Related Topics Airports in Class B Airspace (FAR 91.131) Student Pilots: Solo Requirements (FAR 61.87) Student Pilots: General Limitations (FAR 61.89) Student Pilots: Eligibility (FAR 61.83)


Recreational Pilots: Eligibility (FAR 61.96)
	Recreational Pilots: Eligibility (FAR 61.96) FAR 61.96 says that an applicant for a recreational pilot certificate must be at least 17 years of age, hold a third-class medical certificate, and pass a written examination and a flight test. Related Topics Recreational Pilots: Aeronautical Experience: (FAR 61.99) Recreational Pilots: Privileges and Limitations (FAR 61.101) Pilot Certificates and Ratings (FAR 61.5)


Recreational Pilots: Aeronautical Experience: (FAR 61.99)
	Recreational Pilots: Aeronautical Experience (FAR 61.99) FAR 61.99 dictates the experience required to earn a recreational pilot certificate. An applicant must have at least 30 hours of flight instruction, including 15 hours of dual instruction and 15 hours of solo flight. Related Topics Recreational Pilots: Privileges and Limitations (FAR 61.101) Pilot Certificates and Ratings (FAR 61.5)


Recreational Pilots: Privileges and Limitations (FAR 61.101)
	Recreational Pilots: Privileges and Limitations (FAR 61.101) FAR 61.101 places limitations on a recreational pilot. For example, a recreational pilot cannot: • Carry more than one passenger • Fly an airplane certificated for more than four occupants • Fly a multiengine airplane • Fly an airplane with more than 180 horsepower or retractable landing gear • Fly at night • Fly for hire • Fly into airspace where communication with ATC is required • Fly above 10,000 ft (3,048 m) MSL • Fly without visual contact with the surface • Fly when the flight or surface visibility is less than 3 mi (5 km) As you can tell, the FAA intends this certificate as a first step toward the private pilot certificate or as a license to fly small airplanes on nice days, not too far from home. Related Topics Recreational Pilots: Aeronautical Experience: (FAR 61.99) Pilot Certificates and Ratings (FAR 61.5)


Private Pilot: General Eligibility Requirements (FAR 61.103)
	Private Pilots: General Eligibility Requirements (FAR 61.103) FAR 61.103 outlines the general eligibility requirements for the private pilot certificate. An applicant must be at least 17 years of age and hold at least a third-class medical certificate (for glider pilots the age is 14, and the applicant must certify that he or she has no medical problems). The applicant must also pass a knowledge test—that's why students attend ground school or use home-study courses. Related Topics Private Pilot: Aeronautical Knowledge (FAR 61.105) Private Pilot: Aeronautical Experience (FAR 61.109) Private Pilot: Limitations (FAR 61.118) Pilot Certificates and Ratings (FAR 61.5)


Private Pilot: Aeronautical Knowledge (FAR 61.105)
	Private Pilots: Aeronautical Knowledge (FAR 61.105) FAR 61.105 covers the minimum list of subjects that a private pilot must learn. A good instructor goes far beyond these minimums. However, you should use this regulation (and the Practical Test Standard) as a checklist to make sure that everything is covered. It's embarrassing to tell the examiner, "My instructor didn't mention that." The complete list is too extensive to quote here, but it includes such areas as: • VFR navigation • Weather • Aerodynamics • Aircraft operations • Airspace • Communications • Emergency procedures • Regulations Suffice it to say that you will be trained to fly both day and night, into large airports and small, locally and cross-country, and to handle emergencies. Related Topics Private Pilot: General Eligibility Requirements (FAR 61.103) Private Pilot: Aeronautical Experience (FAR 61.109) Private Pilot: Limitations (FAR 61.118) Pilot Certificates and Ratings (FAR 61.5)


Private Pilot: Aeronautical Experience (FAR 61.109)
	Private Pilots: Aeronautical Experience (FAR 61.109) FAR 61.109 says that an applicant for the private pilot certificate must have logged at least 40 hours of flight time (the national average required to pass the check ride is about 65 hours). This total must include: • 20 hours of dual instruction (including 3 hours of cross-country flights and 3 hours of night flying with at least one cross-country night flight of more than 100 nm total distance). • 10 hours of solo flight, including 5 hours of solo cross-country flight. In this section of the regulations, a "cross-country" flight includes a landing at least 50 nm from the point of departure. You also must make at least one solo cross-country flight of at least 150 nm with landings at three airports. At some point during the solo flight time, you must make at least three landings at an airport with a control tower. Related Topics Private Pilot: General Eligibility Requirements (FAR 61.103) Private Pilot: Aeronautical Knowledge (FAR 61.105) Private Pilot: Limitations (FAR 61.118) Pilot Certificates and Ratings (FAR 61.5)


Private Pilot: Limitations (FAR 61.118)
	Private Pilots: Limitations (FAR 61.118) FAR 61.118 places limits on what private pilots can do with their new certificates. The limitations revolve around compensation and expense sharing. Briefly, a private pilot cannot fly for hire or make a profit from flying. On a trip where a private pilot shares expenses, the pilot must share equally—contributing piloting skills isn't enough. Everyone on board also must have a "commonality of purpose." That is, everyone must be going to the same place for the same reason. A private pilot can't fly friends to a business meeting and then spend a leisurely day at a nearby resort. A private pilot can fly in the furtherance of business, but only if the flight is incidental to that business. Suppose you work for a real estate company. You are allowed to fly sales representatives to a given location to negotiate a deal. On the other hand, if you sell real estate and your boss says, "How about flying Mr. Smith to Bigtown Municipal so he can catch his flight?" you are not using your pilot's license to sell real estate—you're making an illegal air taxi flight. Related Topics Private Pilot: General Eligibility Requirements (FAR 61.103) Private Pilot: Aeronautical Knowledge (FAR 61.105) Private Pilot: Aeronautical Experience (FAR 61.109) Pilot Certificates and Ratings (FAR 61.5)


Commercial Pilot: Eligibility (FAR 61.123)
	Commercial Pilots: Eligibility (FAR 61.123) FAR 61.123 lists the requirements for the commercial pilot certificate. An applicant must be 18 years old, have a valid second-class medical certificate, be able to speak, read, and understand the English language, and hold a valid private pilot certificate. Related Topics Commercial Pilots: Aeronautical Experience (FAR 61.129) Commercial Pilots: Privileges and Limitations (FAR 61.133) Pilot Certificates and Ratings (FAR 61.5)


Commercial Pilots: Aeronautical Experience (FAR 61.129)
	Commercial Pilots: Aeronautical Experience (FAR 61.129) FAR 61.129 lists the minimum flying experience required for a commercial pilot certificate. That experience includes: • At least 250 hours of flight time, of which 50 hours can be dual instruction in an approved ground training device. • At least 100 hours of the 250 must be in powered aircraft, including at least 50 hours in airplanes. • At least 50 hours of dual instruction, including at least 10 hours of dual instruction in a complex aircraft (one with retractable landing gear, flaps, and a controllable pitch propeller, or a turbine-powered aircraft), 10 hours of instrument instruction, and 10 hours of preparation for the check ride. • As a practical matter, an applicant for a commercial pilot certificate also must have an instrument rating. If you don't have an instrument rating, your commercial flights are restricted to daytime local sightseeing trips. FAR 61.129 also sets the standards for commercial glider pilots. The requirements include: • A knowledge exam on meteorology and glider navigation. • At least 25 hours as a pilot in gliders, and a total of 100 glider flights as pilot in command (PIC), or a total of 200 hours of pilot time in powered aircraft including 20 flights as pilot in command. Related Topics Commercial Pilot: Eligibility (FAR 61.123) Commercial Pilots: Privileges and Limitations (FAR 61.133) Pilot Certificates and Ratings (FAR 61.5)


Commercial Pilots: Privileges and Limitations (FAR 61.133)
	Commercial Pilots: Privileges and Limitations (FAR 61.133) FAR 61.133 gives commercial pilots many headaches, because although it appears to open the door to all kinds of income-producing activities it is actually quite restrictive, and you must read this rule in conjunction with FAR 135.1. According to FAR 61.133, the holder of a commercial pilot certificate can carry cargo or passengers for compensation or hire. That is true in the case of crop-dusters, banner towers, glider towers, traffic reporters, corporate pilots, aerial photographers, aerial firefighters, and similar occupations. However, a commercial pilot certificate allows its pilot to act as pilot in command of an air-taxi (charter) flight only if the flight goes no farther than 25 nm from the departure airport and does not land at any other airport. In effect, unless you're flying under the terms of a Part 135 certificate, you're limited to carrying paying passengers on sightseeing flights. To become a "real" air taxi pilot or charge your friends if you fly them on a long trip somewhere, you must have or work for someone who has an Air Taxi and Commercial Operator Certificate (ATCO). Instrument Rating Almost Mandatory Unless you hold an instrument rating, your commercial pilot certificate will bear the restriction "VFR ONLY." You will be limited to daylight flights no farther than 50 nm from home base. Most employers won't hire a commercial pilot who does not hold an instrument rating. Related Topics Commercial Pilot: Eligibility (FAR 61.123) Commercial Pilots: Aeronautical Experience (FAR 61.129) Airline Transport Pilot (FAR 61.151–171) Pilot Certificates and Ratings (FAR 61.5)


Airline Transport Pilot (FAR 61.151-171)
	Airline Transport Pilots (FAR 61.151–171) FARs 61.151–171 set the standards for the airline transport pilot certificate (ATP). The ATP certificate, not the commercial pilot certificate, is what you need to act as pilot in command of an airliner. In general, the holder of an ATP certificate has the privileges of a commercial pilot with an instrument rating. General Requirements An ATP applicant must be 23 years old, hold a first-class medical certificate, and pass a thorough knowledge test, oral examination, and check ride. Minimum Flight Experience To earn an ATP certificate, you must have logged at least 1,500 hours of flight time. The ATP certificate is the only certificate that requires applicants to take their logbooks to the FAA for review—and it is a very thorough review with every questionable entry examined in detail. Related Topic Pilot Certificates and Ratings (FAR 61.5)


Flight Instructors: (FAR 61.183-195)
	Flight Instructors: (FAR 61.183–195) FARs 61.183–195 relate to flight instructors. General Requirements An applicant for the flight instructor certificate must be at least 18 years old and must hold a commercial pilot certificate with an instrument rating or an airline transport pilot certificate. Before taking the check ride, a flight instructor applicant must pass two knowledge tests—one on the fundamentals of instruction, another that covers all of the material a private pilot or commercial pilot must know, plus a few instructor tricks of the trade. Duration of Flight Instructor Certificate A flight instructor certificate is valid for only two years. You can renew it by attending flight instructor clinics, taking a check ride, or by having an FAA inspector check your record as an instructor. A flight instructor can give both flight and ground instruction, although there is a separate group of ground instructor ratings under Part 143 of the FARs. A ground instructor need not even be a pilot. Additional Ratings Required Flight instructor certificates, like pilot certificates, carry category and class ratings. An instructor with a single-engine land airplane rating cannot instruct in a helicopter or a multiengine airplane. To add ratings to a flight instructor certificate, an instructor must pass knowledge tests and check rides and must log 15 hours as pilot in command in the category and class of aircraft. Limitations Flight instructors are limited to not more than 8 hours of instruction in a 24-hour period. Related Topic Pilot Certificates and Ratings (FAR 61.5)


Rules and Regulations
	Rules and Regulations Like any other activity, aviation has a set of rules. In the U.S., the FAA issues regulations, called FARs, that every pilot must observe. This section of Pilot's Help explains the basic flight rules for operations under VFR and IFR. You'll also find information here about the requirements for pilot certificates and ratings, the privileges of and limitations imposed on pilots, and other important operational considerations. Keep in mind that this section of Pilot's Help does not cover operating rules for commercial or air-carrier flights, and it's not a comprehensive guide to all the rules. Stay Up-to-Date Rules change, so pilots should always have a copy of a complete, up-to-date set of FARs and related advisory materials such as the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) and Advisory Circulars (ACs). Many pilots think that "if it's not in the regulations, it's just advisory and I can take it or leave it." It's true that technically the AIM and ACs are advisory. But if you get into trouble by ignoring a recommended procedure, the FAA can cite you for violation of the regulation against careless and reckless operation. Related Topics Parts of the FARs FAR Part 61: Pilot Certification VFR Regulations IFR Regulations


Parts of the FARs
	Parts of the FARs The FARs issued by the FAA are divided into many parts. The most important sections for pilots are: • Part 1, Definitions and Abbreviations, lists the legal definitions of terms that appear throughout the FARs. The list of terms in Part 1 is far from comprehensive. It contains only terms the lawyers need to interpret and enforce the regulations. Nevertheless, pilots should be familiar with the information in this part. • Part 61, Certification: Pilots and Flight Instructors, lays out the requirements for obtaining various pilot certificates and ratings. It also explains the privileges and limitations associated with each pilot certificate and rating. • Part 91, General Operating and Flight Rules, covers the basic "rules of the road" for flight under VFR and IFR. These basic rules apply to all aircraft. Commercial and airline operations must also comply with additional regulations in Part 135 and Part 121, respectively. • NTSB Part 830, contains rules about the notification and reporting of aircraft accidents and incidents. • Part 43, Maintenance, Preventative Maintenance, Rebuilding, and Alteration, contains rules about required inspections of aircraft and about who may make specific types of repairs or perform certain preventative maintenance on aircraft. This section of Pilot's Help concentrates on key portions of Parts 61 and 91. If you plan to become a pilot you should have a complete, up-to-date copy of the FARs and other official sources of information. Related Topics FAR Part 61: Pilot Certification VFR Regulations IFR Regulations


VFR Regulations
	VFR Regulations "VFR" means "visual flight rules." As the name implies, this set of regulations applies to pilots when the ceiling and visibility are good enough to see and avoid other aircraft, navigate, and avoid obstacles. These regulations, the core of Part 91 of the FARs, apply to all aircraft, from a tiny Piper Cub to a huge Boeing 747. Even when you're operating on an IFR flight plan, you're expected to obey these basic rules whenever the weather meets or exceeds the minimums established for VFR flight. IFR Rules Part 91 of the FARs also contains rules that govern flight under IFR. Those regulations govern flight when bad weather makes visual navigation and collision avoidance impractical. In the U.S., the IFR rules also apply to all flights conducted above 18,000 ft (5,486 m) MSL (Class A airspace). Related Topics Rules and Regulations Parts of the FARs FAR Part 61: Pilot Certification VFR Regulations IFR Regulations


Pilot-In-Command Authority (FAR 91.3)
	Pilot-in-Command Authority (FAR 91.3) FAR 91.3 places the ultimate responsibility for the safety of flight squarely on the shoulders of the pilot in command. Many pilots, especially students and pilots with limited experience, think that they must always comply with an instruction from an air traffic controller or other authority, and this is not the case. No one can tell a pilot what to do if, in the pilot's opinion, carrying out the instruction will create an unsafe condition. Remember: no one can authorize a violation of the FARs; however, a pilot can deviate from any regulation in an emergency. Related Topics Preflight Action (FAR 91.103) Pilots: Required Certificates (FAR 61.3) FAR Part 61: Pilot Certification


Aircraft Airworthiness (FAR 91.7)
	Aircraft Airworthiness (FAR 91.7) FAR 91.7 places responsibility for determining whether an aircraft is safe to fly on the pilot in command. This rule does not mean that the pilot must check the aircraft and engine logbooks (although that is not a bad idea when renting). The aircraft owner or operator is responsible for ensuring that all maintenance and required inspections have been carried out. The pilot in command is responsible for the preflight inspection and preflight checks of the aircraft. Related Topics Preflight Action (FAR 91.103) Aircraft Flight Manual, Marking, Placard Requirements (FAR 91.9)


Aircraft Flight Manual, Marking,Placard Requirements (FAR 91.9)
	Aircraft Flight Manual, Marking, Placard Requirements (FAR 91.9) FAR 91.9 says that you must have an approved aircraft flight manual on board before you take off and that you must comply with the operating limitations and restrictions in that manual. These limitations typically include maximum weight, operating speeds, and prohibitions against specific maneuvers. The placards and markings on the instrument panel and other parts of the aircraft are considered part of the aircraft operating limitations, too. If a little sign on the instrument panel says the airplane is not approved for spins, it's illegal to go up and try one. Related Topics Preflight Action (FAR 91.103) Aircraft Airworthiness (FAR 91.7)


Careless or Reckless Operation (FAR 91.13)
	Careless or Reckless Operation (FAR 91.13) FAR 91.13 is the catch-all "careless and reckless" regulation. In the eyes of the FAA, if you have an accident or are involved in an incident you have usually been either careless or reckless or both. This rule applies to both flight and ground operations. And remember, if you decide not to follow a procedure recommended in the AIM or an advisory circular (AC) and have a problem, this regulation gives the FAA authority to take action. Related Topics Dropping Objects (FAR 91.15) Alcohol or Drugs (FAR 91.17) Operating Near Other Aircraft (FAR 91.111) Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113) Minimum Safe Altitude (FAR 91.119)


Dropping Objects (FAR 91.15)
	Dropping Objects (FAR 91.15) FAR 91.15 deals with dropping objects out of an airplane. Want to deliver newspapers to a remote cabin? Participate in an accuracy contest with flour bombs? No problem, as long as you don't create a hazard to people or property on the ground. Just take reasonable precautions and make sure that the folks below know what you are going to do. Related Topics Careless or Reckless Operation (FAR 91.13) Operating Near Other Aircraft (FAR 91.111) Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113) Minimum Safe Altitude (FAR 91.119)


Alcohol or Drugs (FAR 91.17)
	Alcohol or Drugs (FAR 91.17) FAR 91.17 deals with liquor and drug violations. It's often called the "eight hours from bottle to throttle" regulation. Simply put, it's illegal to fly within eight hours of drinking alcohol. The military and most airlines have even stricter rules. Obviously, you cannot fly while intoxicated or under the influence of drugs. The legal blood alcohol limit is .04 percent. If you refuse to take a blood test, the FAA suspends your pilot certificates. It's also illegal to carry a passenger who appears to be intoxicated or under the influence of drugs. Keep in mind that you can also lose your pilot certificates if you're convicted of driving a car while under the influence—see FAR 61.15. On a related subject, FAR 91.19 says that you can't carry narcotics, marijuana, or other drugs in an airplane—but you knew that, didn't you? Related Topics Offenses Involving Alcohol and Drugs (FAR 61.15) Careless or Reckless Operation (FAR 91.13)


Portable Electronic Devices (FAR 91.21)
	Portable Electronic Devices (FAR 91.21) FAR 91.21 governs the use of portable electronic devices in airplanes. With the exception of such benign devices as hearing aids, tape recorders, electric shavers, and pacemakers, the use of portable electronic devices in flight is prohibited unless the pilot in command decides a particular device is okay. The opinion of the pilot in command is final. Cellular Phones Use of cellular telephones in flight is prohibited by Federal Communications Commission regulations, not the FARs. You can make a call while the wheels are on the ground, but not after you're airborne. Related Topic Pilot-In-Command Authority (FAR 91.3)


Preflight Action (FAR 91.103)
	Preflight Action (FAR 91.103) FAR 91.103 lists the actions you must take before departing on a flight "not in the vicinity of an airport," commonly interpreted to mean a cross-country flight. The regulation requires that you get weather reports and forecasts for your route of flight, the destination airport, and any alternate airports. You must also compute the fuel required to complete the flight with legal reserves (see FAR 91.151) and determine that the runways at the airports you intend to use are long enough for takeoffs and landings under prevailing weather conditions. Except for running out of fuel, few things are more embarrassing than landing at an airport and then realizing that the runway is too short for a safe takeoff. As a final catch the rule says you must collect and consider any other information relating to the safety of flight. A telephone call to an operator at the destination might reveal some important information not included in official government publications. What's Cross-Country? Note that any flight from one airport to another is a cross-country flight. Minimum distances for cross-country flights apply when you are accumulating hours to upgrade to a higher pilot certificate or rating, but those minimums apply only for those purposes. The nonstop around-the-world flight of the Voyager technically wasn't a cross-country trip because it took off and landed at the same airport. Related Topics Minimum Fuel for VFR Flight (FAR 91.151) Pilot-In-Command Authority (FAR 91.3) Aircraft Airworthiness (FAR 91.7)


Crewmembers at Stations (FAR 91.105)
	Crewmembers at Stations (FAR 91.105) FAR 91.105 requires that all required crewmembers be at their stations with their seatbelts fastened for takeoffs and landings and while en route. If shoulder harnesses are provided they must be used. There is an exemption that allows crewmembers to move about the aircraft if necessary in the performance of their duties and for their "physiological needs." Related Topic Use of Safety Belts (FAR 91.107)


Use of Safety Belts (FAR 91.107)
	Use of Safety Belts (FAR 91.107) FAR 91.107 extends the seatbelt and shoulder harness regulation to passengers, but it is not as stringent. Every person on board must be provided a seat with a seatbelt, and the pilot is required to brief the passengers on how to fasten and unfasten the seatbelts (and shoulder harnesses, if provided). Everyone must be buckled up for takeoff and landing. And unless the passengers are wearing helmets, it is a good idea to keep buckled up at all times. A child under two years of age can be held by an adult but the belt should not be buckled around the child! Your imagination can provide a vivid picture of what happens when G-forces squeeze a baby between an adult and a seatbelt. Children older than two years of age get their own seats and seatbelts. Related Topic Crewmembers at Stations (FAR 91.105)


Operating Near Other Aircraft (FAR 91.111)
	Operating Near Other Aircraft (FAR 91.111) FAR 91.111 governs formation flight. Military pilots spend hundreds of hours practicing formation flight, so it is not something that two friends should undertake on a Sunday afternoon with their families on board. Formation flight requires prearrangement between the pilots involved; it is not a spur-of-the-moment thing. But it is legal, if prearranged, and if neither airplane is carrying passengers for hire. Related Topics Careless or Reckless Operation (FAR 91.13) Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113) Minimum Safe Altitude (FAR 91.119)


Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113)
	Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113) FAR 91.113 contains the right-of-way rules, or the "rules of the road." Just as when you drive a car, the aircraft on your right has the right-of-way. Similarly, when two airplanes approach each other head-on, each pilot must alter course to the right. When overtaking another airplane, the pilot of the slower aircraft overtaken has the right-of-way, and the pilot of the passing airplane must alter course and pass to the right of the slower aircraft—the opposite of how it's done on the freeway. After You, Alphonse When it comes to right-of-way, there's also a hierarchy of aircraft categories based on maneuverability: • A balloon, being at the mercy of the wind, has the right-of-way over any other category of aircraft. • A glider has the right-of-way over airships, airplanes, and rotorcraft. • An airship has the right-of-way over an airplane or rotorcraft. • An aircraft towing another aircraft (such as a plane towing gliders or a tanker refueling another aircraft) has the right-of-way over all other powered aircraft. • An airplane on final approach to land has the right-of-way over all other airplanes in the air or on the surface. • When two airplanes are approaching an airport to land, the lower of the two has the right-of-way, but it must not take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another airplane that is on final approach. The last two situations make for dandy confrontations at the gas pumps. Moral: Use the radio to announce your position and intentions; listen when you are not talking. And exercise good manners—aviation is not a contest. Related Topics Careless or Reckless Operation (FAR 91.13) Operating Near Other Aircraft (FAR 91.111) Minimum Safe Altitude (FAR 91.119)


Aircraft Speed (FAR 91.117)
	Aircraft Speed (FAR 91.117) FAR 91.117 is the speed limit rule. You probably won't pay much attention to this rule until you start flying turboprops or jets (or when you are using the Learjet or 737 in Flight Simulator). The general speed limit below 10,000 ft (3,048 m) above mean sea level (MSL) is 250 knots. You may have noticed that airliners level off and slow down for a minute as they approach the destination. The pilot is bleeding off airspeed to get down to 250 knots before continuing the descent below 10,000 ft. An airplane flying below 2,500 ft above the ground (AGL) within 4 nm of Class C or Class D airspace cannot exceed 200 knots. That 200-knot limit also applies when flying in the airspace beneath Class B airspace or when operating in a VFR corridor through Class B airspace. The speed limit inside Class B airspace is 250 knots. Related Topics Careless or Reckless Operation (FAR 91.13) Operating Near Other Aircraft (FAR 91.111) Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113) Minimum Safe Altitude (FAR 91.119)


Minimum Safe Altitude (FAR 91.119)
	Minimum Safe Altitude (FAR 91.119) FAR 91.119 has been the downfall of many a pilot. Simply put, it requires pilots to stay high enough to make an emergency landing if an engine fails, without creating a hazard to people or property on the surface. Aircraft taking off or landing are, of course, exempt from this rule. But buzzing the beach or a friend's house does not fall under this exemption. To be more specific, when you are flying over a "congested area"—a term not defined in the FARs—or over an open-air assembly of persons you must remain least 1,000 ft (305 m) above the highest obstacle within 2,000 ft (610 m). That isn't very high if you're looking for an emergency landing site from over downtown Los Angeles or New York. Out in the Boondocks When you are flying over other than congested areas, you must maintain an altitude of at least 500 ft (152 m) above the surface—except over open water or sparsely settled areas. In those cases, you must not get closer than 500 ft to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure. Related Topics Altimeter Settings (FAR 91.121) Careless or Reckless Operation (FAR 91.13) Minimum IFR Altitudes (FAR 91.177)


Altimeter Settings (FAR 91.121)
	Altimeter Settings (FAR 91.121) Altimeters are aneroid barometers, and you know from watching the weather maps that the pressure changes as you fly into different air masses. By observing FAR 91.121, pilots keep their altimeters in sync with local conditions and avoid potential conflicts. If you are flying below 18,000 ft (5,486 m) MSL, you should call a Flight Service Station or air traffic control facility within 100 nm of your position and get the current altimeter setting. Pressure patterns can and do change over such a short distance, and you want your altimeter to agree with the altimeters of other airplanes flying nearby. From High to Low… If you fail to reset your altimeter and are flying toward lower pressure, your airplane will be closer to the ground than you think it is. Remember the rule: "From high to low, look out below!" From Low to High… Similarly, if you are flying toward higher pressure your airplane will be higher than you think it is. Remember: "From low to high, you're in the sky!" You can use the same rhymes when flying from cold weather toward warmer weather, and vice versa. Altimeter Setting in the Field If you are on the ground, or if no suitable station is within radio range, set your altimeter to agree with field elevation as published on the aeronautical chart—but proceed with caution until you can contact ATC and get an official altimeter setting. In the Flight Levels Above 18,000 ft MSL, all altimeters must be set to the standard sea-level pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury. Above that altitude, pilots and ATC use flight levels instead of thousands of feet. For example, if you're climbing to 24,000 ft (7,315 m), you might say "Houston Center, Lear two three papa leaving one-seven thousand for flight level two four zero." Related Topics VFR Cruising Altitude (FAR 91.159) IFR Cruising Altitude (FAR 91.179) Minimum Safe Altitude (FAR 91.119) Minimum IFR Altitudes (FAR 91.177)


ATC Clearances and Instructions (FAR 91.123)
	ATC Clearances and Instructions (FAR 91.123) FAR 91.123 says that you must comply with all air traffic control (ATC) clearances and instructions. That makes sense, because ATC is supposed to keep airplanes from running into one another and it's in your best interest to go with the flow. But don't forget your authority as pilot in command from FAR 91.3. If ATC tells you to do something that's illegal, appears to be unsafe, or just makes you feel uncomfortable, exercise your authority. Assert yourself, because if you cause a problem or ding your airplane, the controller is not on the hook—you are. Instructions and Clearances Learn to distinguish between an ATC instruction and an ATC clearance. A clearance has a limit: "Cleared into the Class B airspace," "Cleared to Chicago O'Hare." An instruction has no defined limit: "Turn right heading zero-nine-zero," "Follow that traffic." Note that ground controllers never use the word "cleared." They always say "Taxi to runway three-two," "Taxi to the ramp," and so forth. Related Topics Pilot-In-Command Authority (FAR 91.3) IFR Regulations


Light Gun Signals (FAR 91.125)
	Light-Gun Signals (FAR 91.125) Ever wonder how an airplane without radios (or a failed radio) can operate at a busy airport? FAR 91.125 lists the light-gun signals that control tower operators use to send such messages as "cleared to land," "go around," or "exercise extreme caution." The signals and their meanings are: • Steady green: cleared for takeoff or cleared to land. • Flashing green: cleared to taxi or return for landing. • Steady red: stop or give way to other aircraft and continue circling. • Flashing red: taxi clear of runway in use or airport unsafe—do not land. • Flashing white: return to starting point on the airport. • Alternating red and green: exercise extreme caution. Color Blind? Pilots who are color blind or have difficulty in distinguishing colors must apply for a Certificate of Demonstrated Ability from the FAA. The pilot and the FAA examiner must watch while a tower controller sends red, green, and white light gun signals. If the applicant can distinguish those three colors, the examiner issues the certificate; if not, the pilot gets a certificate with a limitation that restricts certain operations where color discrimination is necessary. Related Topics Pilot-In-Command Authority (FAR 91.3) Lost Communications Under IFR (FAR 91.185)


Airports in Class G Airspace (FAR 91.126)
	Airports in Class G Airspace (FAR 91.126) FAR 91.126 deals with operations at airports in Class G, or uncontrolled, airspace. These are airports without operating control towers. Normal Traffic Pattern In a normal traffic pattern aircraft make all turns to the left, unless markings or light signals indicate right turns. Airports with right-hand patterns or those with two-way patterns have pattern direction indicators near the wind indicator. These pattern direction indicators, made of white concrete strips, white-painted tires, or painted lines, run parallel to the airport runways with 90-degree extensions representing the base and crosswind legs of the traffic pattern. One-Sided Traffic Patterns At some airports, noise concerns or obstructions dictate that the pattern be flown only on one side of the airport. For example, if the airport has a single runway oriented north and south and a hill or an antenna lies east of the airport, the traffic pattern is on the west side regardless of wind direction. Pilots landing to the north make left turns in the pattern, while pilots landing to the south make right turns. The pattern direction indicator's 90-degree extensions point to the west, making it clear that pilots should not fly on the east side of the airport. Lights On At night, the pattern direction indicator is lighted; if a right-hand pattern is in effect, a flashing amber light is located on or near the wind indicator. Communication Optional An airport in Class G airspace usually does not have an official air traffic control facility. Pilots use a designated radio frequency to get traffic advisories and to communicate with other aircraft in the vicinity. Legally, if they don't feel like talking, they can take off and land without using the radio. Note, however, that if an airshow is held at that little grass strip and the FAA brings in a temporary tower, you must communicate with the tower, even though the surrounding airspace technically remains uncontrolled airspace. After the Controllers Go Home When you look at an aeronautical chart, you cannot always tell what class of airspace will stay behind when the controllers at a part-time tower go home. You have to consult the official Airport/Facilities Directory for that information. At most part-time tower-controlled airports, after the tower closes there is no weather observer at the airport. For that reason, the airport becomes an uncontrolled airport with 700 ft (213 m) of uncontrolled airspace that extends from the surface to the base of the overlying Class E airspace. A pilot approaching the airport on an instrument approach is generally protected from VFR pilots until reaching 700 ft AGL. Related Topics Airports in Class E Airspace (FAR 91.127) Airports in Class D Airspace (FAR 91.129) Airports in Class C Airspace (FAR 91.130) Airports in Class B Airspace (FAR 91.131)


Airports in Class E Airspace (FAR 91.127)
	Airports in Class E Airspace (FAR 91.127) Most of the airspace in the U.S. is Class E airspace, the lowest classification of controlled airspace. FAR 91.127 establishes the rules for operating at airports in Class E airspace. At these airports, controlled airspace begins at the surface, so pilots operating under IFR are protected from VFR pilots from the ground up. If a part-time tower closes down but a weather observer remains at the airport, the airspace usually becomes Class E. Traffic Pattern When operating at an airport in Class E airspace, follow the same procedures (outlined in FAR 91.126) that apply to uncontrolled airports in Class G airspace. Related Topics Airports in Class G Airspace (FAR 91.126) Airports in Class D Airspace (FAR 91.129) Airports in Class C Airspace (FAR 91.130) Airports in Class B Airspace (FAR 91.131)


Airports in Class D Airspace (FAR 91.129)
	Airports in Class D Airspace (FAR 91.129) An airport with an operating control tower is surrounded by Class D airspace, and FAR 91.129 tells you what to do at such an airport. Despite the impression you may have from watching television and the movies, only a few hundred airports in the U.S. have control towers, and their area of responsibility extends only a few miles from the airport. Communications Required The most important requirement for operating at an airport in Class D airspace is that you must establish and maintain radio communication with the tower if you want to take off, land, or fly through its airspace. Note that you do not need a clearance as such—just establish two-way communication before you enter the airspace. To take off or land, however, you do need an explicit clearance from the tower. Local Control The person you talk to is the tower controller, sometimes called the "local controller." The local controller issues clearances to take off and land and manages the traffic pattern. While the tower is in operation, you don't have to worry about the direction of the traffic pattern. The tower controller tells you what to do, either directly or through the Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS). Ground Control The ground controller has responsibility for the taxiways and all movement areas, which are separated from non-movement areas such as hangars and tie-down spaces by a double yellow line. Related Topics Airports in Class G Airspace (FAR 91.126) Airports in Class E Airspace (FAR 91.127) Airports in Class C Airspace (FAR 91.130) Airports in Class B Airspace (FAR 91.131)


Airports in Class C Airspace (FAR 91.130)
	Airports in Class C Airspace (FAR 91.130) Some airports are busy enough to have control towers but do not have enough air carrier traffic to warrant establishment of Class B airspace. These airports, all of which have radar approach facilities, are surrounded by Class C airspace, and FAR 91.130 sets the rules. The radar controllers want to keep airplanes from bumping into one another, of course, so they want to identify each airplane on radar and talk to its pilot. Class C airspace meets that basic requirement. You don't need a clearance to enter; just establish two-way communications. However, your airplane must be equipped with an altitude-reporting transponder. Related Topics Airports in Class G Airspace (FAR 91.126) Airports in Class E Airspace (FAR 91.127) Airports in Class D Airspace (FAR 91.129) Airports in Class B Airspace (FAR 91.131)


Airports in Class B Airspace (FAR 91.131)
	Airports in Class B Airspace (FAR 91.131) Class B airspace is established at the busiest airports in the U.S. It is the only class of airspace that requires a clearance before entry. Class B airspace is often referred to as an upside-down wedding cake, because it is small at the bottom and gets larger with altitude. It begins at the airport surface and typically extends to 10,000 ft (3,048 m) MSL. The radius of the top layer can be as much as 30 nm (56 km). Transponder Required Your aircraft must have an altitude-reporting (Mode C) transponder to operate in Class B airspace. Each airport in Class B airspace is also surrounded by a 30-nm (56 km) ring. Within that ring an altitude-reporting transponder is required. Don't confuse these two requirements. The 30-mile veil (or "Mode C" veil) is just an equipment requirement and has nothing to do with the Class B airspace itself. Entering the Class B airspace requires a clearance. In other words, cross the 30-mile circle and you had better have your altitude-reporting transponder on. Cross the Class B line without a clearance and you could lose your pilot certificate. Related Topics Airports in Class G Airspace (FAR 91.126) Airports in Class E Airspace (FAR 91.127) Airports in Class D Airspace (FAR 91.129) Airports in Class C Airspace (FAR 91.130)


Minimum Fuel for VFR Flight (FAR 91.151)
	Minimum Fuel for VFR Flight (FAR 91.151) Every year, pilots run out of fuel and have to make emergency landings, which is not only embarrassing and dangerous, it's illegal according to FAR 91.151. Day Requirements Pilots flying under VFR during daylight hours are required to carry enough fuel to get to their destination airport plus 30 minutes reserve. This is not rocket science. If your airplane burns 6 gallons (23 liters) per hour, you should consider 3 gallons (12.5 liters) as unusable fuel. If your airplane has a usable fuel capacity of 32 gallons (121 liters), pretend that its capacity is only 29 gallons (110 liters). There are other rules of thumb that you can use to keep fuel in reserve. Night Requirements Pilots flying under VFR at night must carry a 45-minute reserve beyond the fuel required to reach their destination. Time in the Tanks Keep in mind that you must keep track of your fuel burn during a flight. The rule is not based on what you plan to burn—it's the fuel you use that actually counts. If strong headwinds, deviations around weather, or other delays eat into your fuel supply, you must land and take on more fuel so you always arrive with at least minimum legal reserves. Related Topics VFR Flight Plans (FAR 91.153) IFR Fuel Requirements (FAR 91.167)


VFR Flight Plans (FAR 91.153)
	VFR Flight Plans (FAR 91.153) Pilots operating under VFR are not required to file flight plans. However, the flight plan system provides critical information to search-and-rescue authorities if a flight does not arrive at its destination. So why would any thinking person pass up the opportunity to be rescued expeditiously? In the U.S., pilots file flight plans with a Flight Service Station (FSS). They can dictate the flight plan to an FSS specialist, who enters it into a computer system or files the flight plan directly with a modem. Information Required FAR 91.153 lists the information that must be included in a VFR flight plan: • Aircraft identification number, call sign, or both • Aircraft type • Name and address of the pilot in command • Place and time (in UTC) of departure • Proposed route, cruising altitude, and true airspeed • Destination and estimated time en route (in hours and minutes) • Fuel on board (in hours and minutes) • Number of people on board • Remarks The flight plan form also includes space for information about the aircraft color. Closing a VFR Flight Plan Control towers and other ATC facilities do not automatically close VFR flight plans. Pilots must contact an FSS by radio or telephone to close the plan. They must do so within 30 minutes of the estimated time of arrival—otherwise, search-and-rescue operations begin. Related Topics VFR Cruising Altitude (FAR 91.159) Minimum Fuel for VFR Flight (FAR 91.151) Basic VFR Weather Minimums (FAR 91.155)


Basic VFR Weather Minimums (FAR 91.155)
	Basic VFR Weather Minimums (FAR 91.155) Pilots operating under VFR must do just that—fly visually. Doing so requires a minimum flight visibility and that the pilot maintain a minimum distance from clouds. FAR 91.155 establishes those minimums for different types of controlled airspace. Below 10,000 ft (3,048 m) Below 10,000 ft MSL, a pilot operating under VFR in most controlled airspace (Classes C, D, and E), is required to have a minimum of 3 mi (5 km) flight visibility, fly 1,000 ft (305 m) above or 500 ft (150 m) below clouds, or have a horizontal clearance of 2,000 ft (610 m) from clouds. In Class B airspace, you must have 3 mi visibility and remain clear of clouds. These are minimums—if a military jet pops out of a cloud deck in front of you, it can climb 1,000 ft (305 m) or descend 500 ft (150 m) before you can react. And how about a passenger jet crossing from left to right that comes out of a cloud 2,000 ft (610 m) away? Above 10,000 ft MSL Above 10,000 ft (3,048 m), where the 250-knot speed limit does not apply, the visibility and cloud clearance requirements increase. Minimum visibility jumps to 5 mi (8 km), vertical cloud clearance becomes 1,000 ft (305 m) above or below, and horizontal clearance increases to 1 mi (1.6 km). But remember, those jets are flying at 400–600 knots—have those increased minimums truly increased your margin of safety? Uncontrolled Airspace In uncontrolled airspace during the day at 1,200 ft (366 m) above the ground or less, you need just 1 mi (1.6 km) visibility and the ability to remain clear of all clouds. Experienced pilots will tell you that trying to fly visually with one mile visibility is virtually impossible—unless you are flying a short-takeoff-and-landing (STOL) airplane that can be slowed to 40 knots or so. Flying 1,200 ft (366 m) above the surface in bad weather is no walk in the park, either. If the floor of controlled airspace is 700 ft (213 m) AGL, keep in mind that you have to be able to make a safe emergency landing if the engine quits and stay 500 ft above people or property. How are you going to fly that low? Night Minimums At night, when you can't see the surface, the minimums are the same as for daytime flight in controlled airspace: 3 mi (5 km) visibility and 500 ft (152 m) below, 1,000 ft (305 m) above, and 2,000 ft (610 m) horizontal clearance from clouds. There is a special dispensation, however. If you want to get in some landing practice at night and the visibility is less than 3 mi (5 km) but not less than 1 mi (1.6 m), you can operate clear of clouds if you stay in the traffic pattern not more than one-half mile from the runway At airports in Class B, Class C, and Class D airspace, and at airports where Class E airspace begins at the surface, you cannot fly beneath the ceiling under VFR if the ceiling is less than 1,000 ft (305 m) or the visibility is less than 3 mi (5 km). These minimums are called "basic VFR," and under these conditions you cannot take off or land at any of these airports without a special VFR clearance, described in FAR 91.157. Related Topics Special VFR Operations (FAR 91.157) VFR Cruising Altitude (FAR 91.159) Minimum Fuel for VFR Flight (FAR 91.151)


Special VFR Operations (FAR 91.157)
	Special VFR Operations (FAR 91.157) Suppose you are inbound to the airport and the ATIS recording says that the ceiling is 900 ft (274 m) and the visibility is less than 2 mi (3.2 km). When you call the tower, the controller says, "The airport is below VFR minimums—what are your intentions?" You can either turn around and go home or say, "I request a special VFR clearance." FAR 91.157 allows VFR pilots to take off from or land at an airport in Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace if the flight visibility is at least 1 mi (1.6 km) and the pilot can remain clear of clouds. At night, special VFR (SVFR) is not available to pilots who don't have an instrument rating, and fixed-wing SVFR is prohibited at several major airports. Leave Yourself an Out When departing under special VFR, make sure that the weather permits VFR flight, not cloud dodging, after you leave the surface area of the Class B, C, D, or E airspace. If you run into trouble and need to return, you have to take your turn in line behind aircraft operating under IFR. Related Topics Basic VFR Weather Minimums (FAR 91.155) IFR Regulations


VFR Cruising Altitude (FAR 91.159)
	VFR Cruising Altitude (FAR 91.159) How do pilots keep from running into one another when flying under VFR? FAR 91.159 (the "hemispheric rule") helps by putting pilots at different altitudes. This regulation applies only to flight more than 3,000 ft (914 m) AGL—at lower altitudes, you are on your own. Odd and Even If your magnetic course is between 000 degrees and 179 degrees, you should fly at odd thousand-foot altitudes plus 500 ft. That is, if your course is northeast, east, or southeast, you should be at 3,500 ft, 5,500 ft, 7,500 ft, and so forth. Remember that east is 090 degrees, and that 9 is an odd number. If your magnetic course is between 180 degrees and 359 degrees, your altitude should be an even thousand-foot altitude plus 500 ft. If your course is roughly southwest, west, or northwest, your altitude should be 4,500 ft, 6,500 ft, 8,500 ft, and so forth. West is 270 degrees, and 2 is an even number. Course, not Heading Remember that your airplane's heading has nothing to do with the altitude rule—it's magnetic course that counts. And if your course is very close to due north or due south, keep your head on a swivel. Related Topics VFR Flight Plans (FAR 91.153) Minimum Safe Altitude (FAR 91.119) IFR Cruising Altitude (FAR 91.179) Minimum IFR Altitudes (FAR 91.177)


Supplemental Oxygen (FAR 91.211)
	Supplemental Oxygen (FAR 91.211) Your body needs oxygen, and as altitude increases, the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere decreases. Without supplemental oxygen, you could develop hypoxia and fall unconscious—and it is very difficult to fly when you are unconscious. FAR 91.211 says that at cabin pressure altitudes between 12,500 ft (3,810 m) and 14,000 ft (4,267 m), the flight crew must use oxygen for any time at those altitudes in excess of 30 minutes. The assumption is that a young, healthy pilot can handle the reduction in oxygen for 30 minutes. At cabin pressure altitudes between 14,000 ft (4,267 m) and 15,000 ft (4,572 m), the flight crew must use supplemental oxygen at all times. When the cabin altitude gets up to 15,000 ft (4,572 m), the passengers must be provided with supplemental oxygen. If you are flying an unpressurized airplane, cabin altitude and outside altitude are the same. In a pressurized airplane, the system can be set to maintain a cabin altitude far lower than actual altitude. For example, the typical airliner flying at 35,000 ft (10,668 m) has a cabin altitude of 8,000 ft (2,338 m). Smoking If you smoke your lungs are probably at 5,000 ft (1,524 m) right now, even if you live at sea level. Smokers should use oxygen at much lower altitudes than nonsmokers. Turn On the Lights Visual acuity is affected by a reduction in blood oxygen, so when flying at night you should put on the oxygen mask at a lower altitude than you would in the daytime. Many pilots put on the mask at 5,000 ft (1,524 m) when flying at night. Related Topics VFR Cruising Altitude (FAR 91.159) Hypoxia


Aerobatics (FAR 91.303)
	Aerobatics (FAR 91.303) This section of the FARs considers any intentional maneuver involving an abrupt change in an airplane's attitude, an abnormal attitude, or abnormal acceleration not necessary for normal flight to be an aerobatic maneuver—no specific bank angles or pitch attitudes are mentioned. Where Not to Show Off FAR 91.303 places restrictions on where pilots can fly aerobatics. Such maneuvers are prohibited • Over any congested area of a city, town, or settlement. • Over an open assembly of persons. • Within the lateral boundaries of the surface areas of Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace designated for an airport. • Within 4 nm (7.4 km) of the centerline of an airway. • Below 1,500 ft (457 m) above the surface. • When flight visibility is less than 3 mi (5 km). Airshows and Exhibitions Military demonstration teams and airshow performers get waivers from the FAA to fly close to the ground and to people. Related Topics Careless or Reckless Operation (FAR 91.13) Minimum Safe Altitude (FAR 91.119) Parachutes (FAR 91.307)


Parachutes (FAR 91.307)
	Parachutes (FAR 91.307) You seldom see anyone other than a skydiver getting into a general aviation airplane while wearing a parachute. But if you plan to bank the airplane more than 60 degrees or raise or lower the nose more than 30 degrees, you're supposed to wear a parachute. This rule applies except during flight training and tests for a pilot certificate or rating—even if an applicant for a flight instructor certificate is practicing spins. Nevertheless, a prudent pilot seeks out an aerobatic airplane, a qualified instructor, and a couple of parachutes before flying such maneuvers. Keep in mind that the parachute must be legal, too. FAR 91.307 says the parachute must have been checked and packed by a certificated parachute rigger within the preceding 120 days. Related Topic Aerobatics (FAR 91.303)


Required Inspections (FAR 91.409)
	Required Inspections (FAR 91.409) All aircraft are subject to periodic inspections. FAR 91.409 explains the basic requirements. Most piston and turboprop airplanes must undergo annual inspections. These inspections are quite thorough, involving the removal of inspection plates to check control cables, check engine operation, and so forth. If an airplane has not had an annual inspection within the past 12 calendar months, it is said to be "out of license." At the completion of the inspection, a mechanic holding an Inspection Authorization certificate makes the appropriate entries in the engine and airframe logs and returns the aircraft to service. If any work has been done that might affect the airplane's flight characteristics, it must be test flown by at least a private pilot before any passengers can be carried. Operators of large aircraft, including air taxi and air carrier aircraft, can develop an FAA-approved maintenance program that allows them to break their scheduled maintenance into smaller pieces and do a little bit every night. Airplanes operated for hire (like the ones you rent at the airport) must also have inspections every 100 hours of operation. An annual can substitute for a 100-hour inspection, but a 100-hour cannot substitute for an annual. Related Topics Aircraft Airworthiness (FAR 91.7) Preflight Action (FAR 91.103)


IFR Regulations
	IFR Regulations "IFR" means "instrument flight rules." As the name implies, this set of regulations applies to pilots when the ceiling and visibility aren't good enough to see and avoid other aircraft, navigate by reference to the ground, or avoid obstacles. In the U.S., IFR rules also apply to all flights conducted above 18,000 ft (5,486 m) MSL (Class A airspace), regardless of weather. These regulations, a subset of Part 91 of the FARs, apply to all aircraft, from a tiny Piper Cub to a huge Boeing 747. However, airlines and other commercial operators must also follow more stringent rules and procedures set out in Parts 135 and 121 of the FARs, plus FAA-approved company procedures. It is those rules that keep your airline flight on the ground or send it to an alternate airport when fog or other bad weather rolls in. VFR Rules Part 91 of the FARs also contains rules that govern flight under VFR. Those regulations apply to pilots when the ceiling and visibility are good enough to see and avoid other aircraft, navigate, and avoid obstacles. Related Topics Requirements for Instrument Rating (FAR 61.65) VFR Regulations


Requirements for Instrument Rating (FAR 61.65)
	Requirements for Instrument Rating (FAR 61.65) FAR 61.65 sets forth the requirements for the instrument rating. The applicant must hold at least a private certificate. IFR Training Time Regardless of when the training was begun, the applicant must log 40 hours of actual or simulated instrument flying time of which no more than 20 hours can be in an FAA-approved ground training device. Simulators that run on personal computers are not yet approved training devices. An instrument pilot's training must also include a cross-country flight of at least 250 nm on federal airways (or as directed by ATC) with instrument approaches at different airports. Of the 40 hours, only 15 hours need be with an instrument instructor. It is legal for you to put on a view-limiting hood and practice instrument procedures in VFR conditions with a VFR-rated safety pilot and log that time as pilot-in-command instrument time. You could even go up with an instrument-rated friend to fly in actual instrument conditions and log pilot-in-command time as sole manipulator of the controls (the friend would have to file the flight plan in his or her name). Despite these shortcuts, having an experienced instrument instructor by your side is invaluable—remember, "practice makes permanent," so you don't want to practice a procedure that is wrong. Who's the Boss? Under current regulations, there can be two pilots in command; FAR Part 1 defines pilot in command as the person responsible for the safety of flight, while FAR 61.51 defines pilot in command as the sole manipulator of the controls. Until the regulations are changed, both the instrument student flying the airplane on instruments (61.51) and the safety pilot (FAR 1) are acting as pilot in command. When Do You Need an Instrument Rating? An instrument rating is required if a pilot is to act as pilot in command when flying in instrument meteorological conditions. Note that this restriction applies in both controlled and uncontrolled airspace. An instrument rating is also required to fly in Class A airspace because all operations in that airspace are conducted under IFR. Related Topic Pilot Certificates and Ratings (FAR 61.5)


Maintaining IFR Currency (FAR 61.57)
	Maintaining IFR Currency (FAR 61.57) FAR 61.57 establishes currency requirements for instrument pilots. Instrument flying skills get rusty if not used regularly, and the FAA provides several options to IFR pilots. The Basic Rule To remain current, you must, within the preceding six calendar months before a proposed IFR flight, have completed at least six instrument approaches (all six approaches can be in an approved ground training device). You must also perform and log practice in holding procedures and intercepting and tracking courses through the use of navigation systems (e.g., VOR, NDB, GPS, etc.). Instrument Competency Check If you don't log the approaches and other practice, you can re-establish currency by taking an instrument competency check with an instrument flight instructor. This method has the advantage of allowing an experienced instructor to evaluate your skills and make suggestions for improvement. If you suddenly realize that you need two hours of instrument time to stay current, hiring an instructor is better than just flying around in the clouds. Related Topics Flight Review (FAR 61.56) Recent Flight Experience: PIC (FAR 61.57)


IFR Fuel Requirements (FAR 91.167)
	IFR Fuel Requirements (FAR 91.167) Running out of fuel is bad, but running out of fuel while flying in the clouds can be disastrous. FAR 91.167 establishes minimum fuel requirements for flights under instrument flight rules. If you are planning a flight under IFR, you must carry enough fuel to fly to the first airport of intended landing, fly from that airport to the designated alternate airport, and fly after that for 45 minutes at normal cruising speed. What Is an Alternate? To designate an airport as a legal alternate, you have to check what types of instrument approaches are available at that airport. If it has an ILS, the forecast weather at your estimated time of arrival must be a ceiling of at least 600 ft (183 m) and visibility of at least 2 mi (3.2 km). If the airport has a nonprecision approach such as a VOR or NDB procedure the ceiling must be 800 ft (244 m) with 2 mi (3.2 km) visibility. No Alternate Necessary You need not designate an alternate if, for at least one hour before and one hour after your estimated time of arrival at your destination, the ceiling is forecast to be at least 2,000 ft (610 m) above airport elevation and the visibility is forecast to be at least 3 mi (5 km). This is known as the "1-2-3 rule." Related Topics IFR Flight Plans (FAR 91.169) Minimum Fuel for VFR Flight (FAR 91.151)


IFR Flight Plans (FAR 91.169)
	IFR Flight Plans (FAR 91.169) VFR pilots have a choice when it comes to filing flight plans—they don't have to if they don't want to. Instrument pilots have no choice, because the air traffic controllers must know about every airplane that is flying in the system—its altitude, its route, and its destination—if they are to carry out their responsibility to keep those airplanes from swapping paint. An IFR flight plan is required for every flight under IFR in controlled airspace. That's what controlled airspace is for—to protect IFR flights from VFR flights and to keep IFR flights separated. Air traffic controllers have no responsibility for or authority over airplanes flying in uncontrolled airspace. IFR in Uncontrolled Airspace If you want to fly solely by reference to instruments in uncontrolled airspace, you do need an instrument rating but you do not need to file an instrument flight plan or receive a clearance from ATC. While you are circling around in that cloud, however, consider the fact that there might be another pilot nearby who doesn't have a clearance either. Moral: Spend as little time as possible in uncontrolled airspace. Related Topics IFR Cruising Altitude (FAR 91.179) Minimum IFR Altitudes (FAR 91.177) Minimum Fuel for VFR Flight (FAR 91.151)


Takeoff and Landing Under IFR (FAR 91.175)
	Takeoff and Landing Under IFR (FAR 91.175) Every instrument approach procedure has a published minimum required visibility and either a minimum descent altitude (MDA) or decision height (DH). These minimums are different for different airplanes, categorized by approach airspeed—faster airplanes need more visibility than slow airplanes. FAR 91.175, one of the longest and most complicated regulations, governs the use of these minimums. Precision Approaches An approach with an electronic glide slope is called a precision approach and has a published decision height (DH). As the name implies, the DH is the altitude at which a pilot looks out the window and decides whether the visibility is sufficient to land. If it is, the approach continues to touchdown. If the pilot can't see the approach lights, runway lights, or runway, the published missed approach procedure must be initiated. There is no gray area—it is a go/no-go decision. Nonprecision Approaches A nonprecision approach does not have an electronic glide slope. It has a published minimum descent altitude and a missed approach point (MAP). Sometimes the MAP is determined by distance measuring equipment (DME), sometimes it is determined by passing over a navigational aid, and sometimes it is determined by elapsed time after crossing a navigational fix. In each case the descent to MDA is begun after crossing the final approach fix (FAF). The pilot maintains the MDA until reaching the MAP. Timing is not a very precise method of determining the missed approach point because of the effect of the wind on the airplane's ground speed. You cannot descend below either decision height or minimum descent altitude unless your airplane is in position to make a normal descent to land (no dive-bomber descents allowed). The prescribed minimum flight visibility must exist, and you must clearly see one or more of ten visual clues such as the approach lights, the threshold lights, and the runway lights. Related Topics Minimum IFR Altitudes (FAR 91.177) IFR Flight Plans (FAR 91.169)


Minimum IFR Altitudes (FAR 91.177)
	Minimum IFR Altitudes (FAR 91.177) Instrument en route charts show minimum en route altitudes (MEA) for all airways. Occasionally, you might want to go "off airways" to cut a corner and shorten your flight. In this situation you must observe the altitude minimums prescribed in FAR 91.177. In mountainous areas (as described in the AIM), you must fly at least 2,000 ft (610 m) above the highest obstacle within a horizontal distance of 4 nm (7.4 km). In other areas, you must fly at least 1,000 ft (305 m) above the highest obstacle within 4 nm (7.4 km). Air traffic controllers won't approve a request for off-airway flight unless they can keep you in radar contact. Related Topics IFR Flight Plans (FAR 91.169) IFR Cruising Altitude (FAR 91.179)


IFR Cruising Altitude (FAR 91.179)
	IFR Cruising Altitude (FAR 91.179) VFR pilots cruise at odd or even thousands of feet plus 500 ft; for example, 3,500 ft, 4,500 ft, 5,500 ft, and so forth, depending on their magnetic course. In compliance with FAR 91.179, IFR pilots cruise with the hundreds-of-feet needle on their altimeters straight up—at exact 1,000-ft increments. The hemispheric rule used by VFR pilots (eastbound, odd numbers; westbound, even numbers) applies to instrument pilots only in uncontrolled airspace—in controlled airspace, instrument pilots fly at the altitude assigned by ATC even if it is a "wrong way" altitude. In spite of that, when you file an IFR flight plan the initial altitude should agree with the hemispheric rule or the ATC computer will probably reject it. Ask, and You'll Probably Receive Controllers are amazingly flexible except when safety is compromised. If you are in the clouds at 5,000 ft and can occasionally see the sun, ask for 6,000 ft or even 7,000 ft. If there is no traffic conflict, the controller will probably be happy to give you a higher altitude. Related Topics Minimum IFR Altitudes (FAR 91.177) IFR Flight Plans (FAR 91.169) VFR Cruising Altitude (FAR 91.159)


Lost Communications Under IFR (FAR 91.185)
	Lost Communications Under IFR (FAR 91.185) Communication is the heart and soul of instrument flight. Controllers keep airplanes apart by assigning courses and altitudes and by monitoring traffic by radar. All this activity is coordinated on the radio. Pilots are required to monitor the appropriate frequencies to receive instructions. FAR 91.185 sets the rules for pilots who have lost two-way communication capability while flying under instrument flight rules. First, there is a special transponder code (7600) that tells controllers that an airplane's radios have failed. It might be only a partial failure, however; what if the pilot can receive but not transmit? The transponder has an IDENT button that enhances its return on the controller's radar scope, so the pilot could acknowledge instructions by pushing that button. A pilot who can transmit but not receive could simply transmit "in the blind" and tell controllers his or her intentions. If the radios go, the transponder probably goes as well, so this regulation essentially tells you to continue the planned flight. If you encounter VFR weather conditions, find an airport and land, and then let ATC know where you are. If you can't get out of the clouds, stay on your assigned route. Climb as necessary to maintain the minimum en route altitude, and fly an instrument approach at the destination. Controllers are well aware of the fact that a no-radio flight is in their airspace, and they simply divert all other traffic until the crippled bird is safely on the ground. Related Topics ATC Clearances and Instructions (FAR 91.123) Light-Gun Signals (FAR 91.125)


Aviation Weather
	Aviation Weather To earn a pilot certificate or an instrument rating, pilots must demonstrate their knowledge of weather theory and show that they can obtain, interpret, and use weather reports and forecasts. This section of the Flight Simulator Ground School introduces fundamental concepts about weather, including explanations of the types of weather you may encounter in Flight Simulator. In fact, many topics include links to information about how you can control the weather in Flight Simulator. Major Topics In this section you'll learn about: • Structure of the atmosphere • Cloud formation and cloud types • Precipitation • High- and low-pressure systems • Fronts • Thunderstorms and other hazards • Weather reports and forecasts TIP: To learn how you can control the weather in Flight Simulator, see the topic "Weather Features in Flight Simulator" in the Using Flight Simulator of Help. NOTE: This section Pilot Training draws heavily on official U.S. government publications, including AC-0054 "Aviation Weather," AC-0045D, "Aviation Weather Services," AC-6123B "Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge," and the AIM. But keep in mind that this introduction to the fundamentals of aviation weather isn't a substitute for a thorough study of official sources of weather information. Related Topics The Atmosphere Weather Features in Flight Simulator


The Atmosphere
	The Atmosphere Knowledge of the basic structure of the atmosphere is important to all pilots, especially those who operate high-performance aircraft that routinely make long-distance flights at high altitudes. Air: What It's Made Of When completely dry, air is about 78 percent nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen. The remaining 1 percent includes argon, carbon dioxide, neon, helium, and other gases. Air always contains some water vapor, however, from almost 0 percent to a maximum of about 5 percent by volume. As the percentage of water vapor increases, the other gases decrease proportionately. Layers The atmosphere doesn't separate into sharply defined layers like a glass filled with different liquors, but its characteristics do change with altitude, sometimes abruptly. To pilots, the most important layers are the troposphere, the tropopause, and the stratosphere. Most weather—clouds, precipitation, and large changes in temperature—occurs in the troposphere, which extends from the earth's surface to about 7 mi (11 km). The tropopause is a thin layer above the troposphere. The jet stream, cirrus clouds, clear air turbulence, condensation trails (contrails), and high altitude haze layers are all associated with the tropopause. The stratosphere lies above the tropopause. Temperature remains almost constant in the stratosphere, except for a warming trend near the top. Related Topics Moisture and Temperature Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Moisture and Temperature
	Moisture and Temperature Although the atmosphere can hold a maximum of about 5 percent of its volume in water vapor, even small changes in this percentage, combined with fluctuations in temperature and pressure, can mean the difference between a clear blue sky and a wall of dark, forbidding thunderstorms. Measuring the Moisture Meteorologists measure the amount of moisture in the air by determining the relative humidity. Expressed in percentage, relative humidity is the ratio between the actual water vapor present in the air and the amount that could be present at the current temperature. Air with 100 percent relative humidity is saturated; less than 100 percent is unsaturated. Warm air can hold more water vapor than cool air. Dew Point Dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated by the water vapor in the air. Aviation weather reports normally include the air temperature and dew point temperature. Temperature–Dew Point Spread The difference between the air temperature and dew point temperature is the temperature–dew point spread, popularly called the "spread." As the spread narrows, clouds and fog are more likely to appear. Even if the spread at ground level is quite large, clouds may form as the temperature drops with altitude. Related Topics Cloud Formation Creating Cloud Layers Creating Temperature Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Cloud Formation
	Cloud Formation A cloud is a visible aggregate of minute water or ice particles suspended in the air. A cloud can be made entirely of liquid water, ice crystals, or a mixture of the two. Clouds form when air becomes saturated—when the relative humidity reaches 100 percent. Saturation occurs as the air's temperature drops, as its dew point increases, or both. Cooling is the far more predominant factor in cloud formation. Cooling Processes Three basic processes may cool air to saturation and cause clouds or fog to form: • Relatively warm, moist air can move over a colder surface. • Stagnant air may overlie a cooling surface, which cools the air. • Upward moving air may cool as it expands. This expansional cooling is the major cause of cloud formation. Land and Water Effects Oceans and large lakes add water vapor to the air. When prevailing winds move air over water, you can expect low ceilings, fog, and precipitation, especially when moist winds are blowing upslope. Even a small lake can cause a daily fluctuation in cloudiness. During the day, cool air over the lake blows toward the land, and convective clouds form over the land. At night, the pattern reverses. Clouds tend to form over the lake as cool air from the land flows over the lake, creating convective clouds over the water. TIP: To learn how you can create and change clouds in Flight Simulator, see the topic "Creating Cloud Layers" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. Related Topics Cloud Types Creating Cloud Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Cloud Types
	Cloud Types Clouds are the best indicator of the air's motion, stability, and moisture content. They can help you visualize weather conditions and avoid weather hazards. Four Cloud Families Meteorologists divide clouds into four general families: • High clouds (cirriform). This family includes cirrus, cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus. High clouds are composed almost entirely of ice crystals. The height of their bases ranges from 16,500–45,000 ft (5000–13,700 m) in middle latitudes. • Middle clouds. This family includes altostratus, altocumulus, and nimbostratus clouds. Middle clouds are primarily liquid water, often supercooled drops. The height of their bases ranges from 6500–23,000 ft (1980–7000 m) in middle latitudes. • Low clouds. This family includes stratus, stratocumulus, and fair-weather cumulus clouds. Low clouds are almost entirely water, but sometimes they include supercooled drops. Low clouds at subfreezing temperatures can also contain snow and ice particles. The bases of these clouds range from near the surface to about 6,500 ft (1,980 m) in middle latitudes. • Clouds with extensive vertical development. This family includes towering cumulus and cumulonimbus. These clouds usually contain supercooled water above the freezing level. When a cumulus cloud grows to great heights, water in the upper part of the cloud freezes into ice crystals forming a cumulonimbus. The heights of cumuliform cloud bases range from 1,000 ft (300 m) or less to above 10,000 ft (3,000 m). TIP: To learn how you can create and change clouds in Flight Simulator, see the topic "Creating Cloud Layers" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. Related Topics Precipitation Creating Cloud Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Precipitation
	Precipitation Precipitation can appear as drizzle, rain, snow, ice pellets, hail, and ice crystals. Precipitation occurs when drops or particles grow in size and weight until the atmosphere can no longer suspend them. The Precipitation Process Once a water droplet or ice crystal forms, it can grow by additional condensation or sublimation, or by merging with other drops. Condensation and sublimation are relatively slow and usually result in drizzle or very light rain or snow. Merging is faster than condensation or sublimation and produces larger precipitation drops or particles. Merging drops in mild upward currents produce light to moderate rain and snow. Strong upward currents support the largest drops and build clouds to great heights. Such clouds can produce heavy rain, heavy snow, and hail. Liquid, Freezing, and Frozen Precipitation that forms and remains liquid falls as rain or drizzle. Sublimation forms snowflakes. Precipitation can change its state. Falling snow may melt in warmer layers of air at lower altitudes to form rain. Rain falling through colder air may become supercooled, freezing on impact as freezing rain; or it may freeze during its descent and fall as ice pellets. Ice pellets always indicate freezing rain at a higher altitude. Precipitation and Cloud Thickness Clouds usually must be at least 4,000 ft (1,200 m) thick to produce significant precipitation. The heavier the precipitation, the thicker the clouds. If you're flying to or departing from an airport reporting precipitation of light or greater intensity, expect clouds to be more than 4,000 ft (1,200 m) thick. Related Topics Creating Cloud Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Atmospheric Pressure
	Atmospheric Pressure Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted by the weight of the atmosphere. Variations in temperature and pressure are the reason pilots must obtain current altimeter settings and adjust their altimeters, especially on long cross-country flights. For example, if you fly from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure and maintain a constant indicated altitude without adjusting the altimeter, your airplane gradually descends. Variations in temperature and pressure also affect true airspeed and aircraft performance. Standard Pressure To analyze pressure systems, meteorologists use an arbitrary reference called the standard atmosphere. In the standard atmosphere, sea-level pressure is 29.92 in. of mercury (1013.2 millibars). In the lower regions of the troposphere, pressure drops approximately 1 in. of mercury per 1,000 ft. The standard pressure at 18,000 ft (5,500 m) is about one-half sea-level pressure. Above this level, pressure drops more slowly. Temperature and Pressure Temperature and pressure are directly linked. Warm air has a higher pressure than cool air, and variations in temperature affect the standard drop in pressure with altitude. If the temperature at a particular altitude is warmer than standard, pressure is also higher than standard, and vice versa. Pressure drops more slowly in relatively warm air and more quickly in relatively cool air. TIP: To learn how you can control atmospheric pressure and temperature in Flight Simulator, see the topics "Changing Barometric Pressure" and "Creating Temperature Layers" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. Related Topics Pressure Systems Changing Barometric Pressure Creating Temperature Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Pressure Systems
	Pressure Systems Meteorologists catalog areas of similar atmospheric pressure into five basic types: • Low—a center of pressure surrounded by higher pressure; also called a cyclone. In the Northern Hemisphere, air circulates counterclockwise in a low. • High—a center of pressure surrounded by lower pressure, also called an anticyclone. In the Northern Hemisphere, air circulates clockwise in a high. • Trough—an elongated area of low pressure with the lowest pressure along a line marking maximum cyclonic (counterclockwise) curvature. • Ridge—an elongated area of high pressure with the highest pressure along a line marking maximum anticyclonic (clockwise) curvature. • Col—the neutral area between two highs and two lows or the intersection of a trough and ridge. A col on a pressure surface is analogous to a mountain pass on a topographic surface. Pressure systems are generally associated with types of weather. For example, lows tend to bring poor weather, and highs often indicate relatively good weather. TIP: To learn how you can control atmospheric pressure in Flight Simulator, see the topic "Changing Barometric Pressure" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. You can also create weather areas to simulate pressure systems. For more information, see the topic "Adding a Weather Area." Related Topics Low-Pressure Systems High-Pressure Systems Changing Barometric Pressure Adding a Weather Area


Low-Pressure Systems
	Low-Pressure Systems Regions of low pressure (lows) develop where air lies over land or water surfaces that are warmer than the surrounding areas. Lows also form as "cyclonic depressions" in areas where unlike air masses meet. In the Northern Hemisphere, air circulates counterclockwise around a low. Low-Pressure Weather Regardless of how they form, lows typically bring cloudiness, precipitation, and restricted visibility. Because the air in a low cannot flow outward against the surrounding relatively high pressure, it is forced up and out of the low-pressure region. The rising air cools, and if moisture is present, it may condense into clouds. TIP: To learn how you can control atmospheric pressure in Flight Simulator, see the topic "Changing Barometric Pressure," in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. You can also create weather areas to simulate pressure systems. For more information, see the topic "Adding a Weather Area." Related Topics High-Pressure Systems Changing Barometric Pressure Adding a Weather Area Weather Features in Flight Simulator


High-Pressure Systems
	High-Pressure Systems High-pressure systems (highs) tend to bring good weather, largely because a high-pressure region is an area of sinking air. That statement may seem odd at first. But remember that air flows from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas. Therefore, a high-pressure system leaks air into the surrounding, relative low-pressure region. As air flows out of a high, it's replaced by air flowing down and in from above. Because air tends to get warmer and drier as it descends, cloudiness, precipitation, and restrictions to visibility dissipate in a high. In the Northern Hemisphere, air circulates clockwise around a high. TIP: To learn how you can control atmospheric pressure in Flight Simulator, see the topic "Changing Barometric Pressure," in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. You can also create weather areas to simulate pressure systems. For more information, see the topic "Adding a Weather Area." Related Topics Low-Pressure Systems Fronts Changing Barometric Pressure Adding a Weather Area Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Fronts
	Fronts The boundary between air masses is called a front. Meteorologists generally divide fronts into four categories: • Cold fronts • Warm fronts • Stationary fronts • Occluded front (occlusion) The weather near a front can vary from virtually clear skies to extremely hazardous conditions, including hail, turbulence, icing, low clouds, and poor visibility. The type of weather associated with a front depends on several factors, including: • The amount of moisture available. In dry air, a front may not be associated with clouds. • The stability of the air. Stability determines which types of clouds form. If warm air overriding the front is stable, stratiform clouds develop. If the warm air is unstable, cumuliform clouds form. • The slope of the front. Shallow frontal surfaces, commonly associated with warm fronts, produce extensive cloudiness with large areas of precipitation, low ceilings, and poor visibility. • The upper wind flow. When winds aloft parallel a front, the front moves slowly if at all. Wind blowing across the front moves the front, sometimes creating a rapidly moving minor trough that often restricts inclement weather to a narrow band. • The speed of frontal movement. A deep, slow-moving trough aloft forms extensive cloudiness and precipitation. A fast-moving minor trough often breeds severe, fast-moving, turbulent spring weather. Frontal weather can change rapidly. For example, a cold front may produce only cloudiness during the morning, then generate a strong squall line by afternoon. Skies may be partly cloudy during the afternoon in advance of a warm front, but by sunset drizzle and dense fog appear. TIP: You can simulate fronts in Flight Simulator by creating adjoining weather areas with different characteristics. For more information, see the topic "Adding a Weather Area." Related Topics Cold Fronts Warm Fronts Stationary Fronts Occluded Fronts Adding a Weather Area Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Cold Fronts
	Cold Fronts A cold front is a mass of relatively cold air displacing a relatively warm air mass. Cold fronts generally produce more intense weather than warm fronts, including thunderstorms, squall lines, hail, severe turbulence, and tornadoes. A Cold Front in Action A cold front acts like a wedge, sliding under warmer air and forcing it aloft, where it cools suddenly. The types of clouds that form during this process depend on the stability of the warm air. Cold fronts tend to move faster than warm fronts, usually 20–35 mph (32–56 km/h). However, cold fronts have been known to move at 60 mph (96 km/h). They often have a steeply sloped frontal surface that produces a narrow band of weather concentrated along the forward edge. TIP: You can simulate fronts in Flight Simulator by creating adjoining weather areas with different characteristics. For more information, see the topic "Adding a Weather Area." Related Topics Cold Front Weather Fronts Adding a Weather Area Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Cold Front Weather
	Cold-Front Weather A cold front tends to move quickly, completely changing the weather within a few hours, and then move on. Altostratus clouds sometimes form slightly ahead of the front, but these clouds seldom appear more than 100 mi (160 km) in advance. Weather associated with a cold front usually occurs directly at the front. In late afternoon during the warm season, however, squall lines can develop 50–200 mi (80–320 km) ahead of the front. If a cold front displaces warm, stable air, an overcast sky may appear for some distance ahead of the front, accompanied by general rain. If the warm air is unstable, scattered thunderstorms and showers are more likely. An almost continuous line of thunderstorms may form along or ahead of a cold front. After the front passes, the weather often clears rapidly. Cooler, drier air often brings unlimited ceilings and excellent visibility. TIP: You can simulate fronts in Flight Simulator by creating adjoining weather areas with different characteristics. For more information, see the topic "Adding a Weather Area." Related Topics Cold Fronts Warm Fronts Adding a Weather Area Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Warm Fronts
	Warm Fronts A warm front is a mass of relatively warm air displacing a relatively cool air mass. Warm fronts generally bring low stratus clouds, precipitation, and restricted visibility. A Warm Front in Action When a warm front moves, warm air slides up over a wedge of colder air ahead of it. The water vapor in the warm air condenses into low nimbostratus and stratus clouds that produce drizzle or rain. The rain falls through and saturates the colder air below, increasing the likelihood of fog. As the warm air moves up the frontal slope, clouds appear at increasing heights. If the warm air is stable, altostratus and cirrostratus prevail. Unstable air produces cumulonimbus—thunderstorms. If warm air is forced into the stratosphere, cirrus clouds form in the freezing temperatures. The upslope movement is very gradual, rising about 1,000 ft (305 m) every 20 mi (32 km). The cirrus clouds, which typically form at about 25,000 ft (7,620 m), may appear 500 mi (805 km) ahead of the front. Slow and Steady The cold air ahead of a warm front retreats slowly, producing a gradual frontal slope. This gentle slope means that warm fronts are seldom as distinct as cold fronts. Given the same upper-level winds, warm fronts usually move about half as fast as cold fronts. TIP: You can simulate fronts in Flight Simulator by creating adjoining weather areas with different characteristics. For more information, see the topic "Adding a Weather Area." Related Topics Fronts Adding a Weather Area Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Stationary Fronts
	Stationary Fronts A stationary front forms when two air masses meet and stall, with neither air mass replacing the other. Surface winds tend to blow parallel to the frontal zone. The weather along a stationary front is usually a mixture of the phenomena associated with both cold fronts and warm fronts. A stationary front normally has a shallow slope, although wind and differences in density between the two air masses may cause it to assume a steeper grade. TIP: You can simulate fronts in Flight Simulator by creating adjoining weather areas with different characteristics. For more information, see the topic "Adding a Weather Area." Related Topics Fronts Adding a Weather Area Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Occluded Fronts
	Occluded Fronts An occluded front or occlusion develops when an air mass is trapped between two colder air masses and forced aloft until it spreads out and dissipates. An Occlusion in Action An occlusion usually develops over three or four days. The process begins with cold and warm air moving in opposite directions along a front. The cold air wedges under the warm air and breaks the continuity of the line separating the air masses. As the warmer air is forced aloft, it cools quickly and its moisture condenses, often causing heavy precipitation. The air becomes extremely turbulent, with sudden changes in pressure and temperature. Weather in an Occlusion As the occlusion approaches, the usual warm front indications prevail—lowering ceilings, reduced visibility, and precipitation. Generally, the warm front weather is then followed almost immediately by cold front weather—squalls, turbulence, and thunderstorms. TIP: You can simulate fronts in Flight Simulator by creating adjoining weather areas with different characteristics. For more information, see the topic "Adding a Weather Area." Related Topics Fronts Adding a Weather Area Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Weather Hazards
	Weather Hazards Despite advances in aircraft design, avionics, and pilot training, weather remains a primary or contributing factor in many aviation accidents. Some weather-related accidents occur when pilots who aren't qualified to fly under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) continue into areas of low ceilings or poor visibility and lose control of their aircraft. But even instrument-rated pilots flying so-called all-weather aircraft must understand and respect the most challenging weather phenomena, especially these hazards: • Ice • Fog • Thunderstorms • Wind shear • Clear air turbulence (CAT) The most important preflight action, therefore, is obtaining a thorough weather briefing. In the U.S., regulations require all pilots to check the weather before any flight that will take them away from the vicinity of an airport. To put the matter succinctly: you can't avoid what you don't know about. TIP: Flight Simulator can demonstrate how some weather hazards can affect an aircraft and test your flying skill. To learn how you can control the weather in Flight Simulator, see the topic "Weather Features in Flight Simulator" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. Related Topics Ice Fog Thunderstorms Wind Shear Clear Air Turbulence Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Ice
	Ice Structural icing is one of the major weather hazards to aircraft. Its effects are cumulative and often rapidly degrade aircraft performance by: • Reducing lift. • Increasing drag. • Increasing weight. • Decreasing thrust. Icing also seriously impairs engine performance; causes false indications on flight instruments; interferes with radio communications; and affects control surfaces, brakes, and landing gear. Types of Ice Structural ice can appear in several forms, including clear ice, rime ice, and mixed ice. Each type affects an aircraft in a slightly different way. Clear ice is heavy and can quickly cover an aircraft. Rime ice creates a lot of drag and disrupts the flow of air over the wings. Mixed ice combines both hazards. How Ice Forms Two conditions are necessary for structural icing in flight: • The aircraft must be flying through visible water such as rain or cloud droplets. • The temperature at the point where the moisture strikes the aircraft must be 32 degrees F (0 degrees C) or colder. Aerodynamic cooling can lower temperature of an airfoil to below freezing even when the ambient temperature is slightly above freezing. Icing Intensities The aviation community uses a standard set of terms to forecast or report icing. Regardless of the type of ice, it is reported as trace, light, moderate, or severe, based on the rate of accumulation. TIP: To learn how you can create icing conditions in Flight Simulator, see the topic "Creating Cloud Layers" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. Related Topics Icing Conditions Icing: Dos and Don'ts Weather Hazards Creating Cloud Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Icing Conditions
	Icing Conditions All clouds at subfreezing temperatures can produce ice. However, the size and distribution of drops and the aerodynamic effects of the aircraft influence the type and severity of ice you encounter—and whether ice forms at all. Big and Fast; Small and Slow Large, supercooled water drops present the greatest icing hazard. Ice created by large drops accumulates quickly and usually appears as clear ice. An equal or lesser number of small droplets produces a slower rate of icing, usually rime ice. Low-Level Clouds and Icing Small water droplets are most common in fog and low-level stratus clouds. Drizzle or very light rain indicates small drops in such clouds, but icing conditions often exist when there is no precipitation. Expect rime ice in such low-level clouds. Mid-Level Clouds and Icing Thick, extensive stratified clouds such as altostratus and nimbostratus usually have an abundance of liquid water, often in large drops. In these clouds, the heaviest icing usually occurs at or slightly above the freezing level in a layer 2,000–3,000 ft (600–900 m) thick. Continuous icing conditions are rarely found more than 5,000 ft (1,500 m) above the freezing level. Cumuliform Clouds and Icing Updrafts in cumuliform clouds help create and support large water drops, often far above the freezing level. Icing has been reported in thunderstorm clouds at 30,000–40,000 ft (9,100–12,200 m) where the temperature was below minus 40 degrees F (minus 40 degrees C). Expect clear ice in such conditions. Other Icing Conditions Fronts, terrain, and seasonal variations also affect the type and severity of icing. For example, freezing rain below a frontal surface can lead to rapid accumulation of clear ice. Cumulonimbus clouds along a surface cold front, a squall line, or embedded in the clouds ahead of a warm front can also produce severe clear icing. Movement of a frontal system across a mountain range often combines the normal frontal lift with the upslope effect of the mountains to create extremely hazardous icing zones. The most dangerous icing takes place above the crests and to the windward side of the ridges. This zone usually extends about 5,000 ft (1500 m) above the tops of the mountains, but in cumuliform clouds the zone may extend much higher. TIP: To learn how you can create icing conditions in Flight Simulator, see the topic "Creating Cloud Layers" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. Related Topics Ice Icing: Dos and Dont's Weather Hazards Creating Cloud Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	Icing: Dos and Dont's For pilots flying small aircraft without anti-icing or de-icing equipment the procedure for dealing with ice is simple: • Check the weather before departure to avoid areas of forecast or reported icing conditions. Make sure you ask for pilot reports and monitor weather reports en route. • If you encounter ice, change altitude or divert immediately. A Few More Pointers • When climbing out through an icing layer, climb at an airspeed a little faster than normal to avoid stalling as ice accumulates. • Be alert for erroneous readings from your airspeed indicator, rate-of-climb indicator, and altimeter. Make sure you turn on the pitot heat. • In stratiform clouds, try descending to warmer air or climbing to air colder than 15 degrees F (minus 10 degrees C). • In freezing rain, climb or descend to find a layer of warmer air. Freezing rain always indicates warmer air above. If you decide to climb, do so quickly. If you descend, you must know the temperature and terrain below. • Avoid cumuliform clouds. • Avoid abrupt maneuvers when your aircraft is coated with ice because the aircraft has lost some of its aerodynamic efficiency. • When "iced up," fly your landing approach with power. • Help your fellow pilots by sending pilot reports—PIREPS—when you encounter ice or when icing is forecast but not encountered. TIP: To learn how you can create icing conditions in Flight Simulator, see the topic "Creating Cloud Layers" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. Related Topics Ice Icing Conditions Weather Hazards Creating Cloud Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Frost
	Frost Frost may seem innocuous, but each year it contributes to many accidents that could easily be avoided. Frost forms near the surface of the earth primarily in clear, stable air and with light winds. The thin metal surfaces on airplanes are especially susceptible to frost. Frost's Effects Frost does not change the basic aerodynamic shape of the wing, but its rough surface spoils the smooth flow of air over the airfoil. A heavy coat of hard frost can cause an increase in stall speed. Even a small amount of frost can prevent an aircraft from becoming airborne at normal takeoff speed, and if a frost-covered aircraft gets off the ground, the disruption of air flow over the wing can cut climb rate or induce a stall as soon as the pilot banks the wings. Coping With Frost There's only one procedure for coping with frost—remove it before you start the engine. In fact, regulations require a pilot to remove all frost from an airplane's wings, fuselage, tail, and other surfaces. The best procedure is to place the airplane in direct sunlight to melt the frost. You can also use de-icing liquid and soft brushes. Never use a credit card, ice scraper, or other hard object to remove frost—you'll probably damage the aircraft's skin. Related Topics Weather Hazards Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	Fog Fog is a cloud at the surface of the earth. It's the most frequent cause of restricted surface visibility and remains one of the most common and persistent weather hazards encountered in aviation. Fog is especially hazardous during takeoff and landing under IFR (Instrument Flight Rules), but it is also a threat to VFR (Visual Flight Rules) pilots who must maintain visual reference to the ground. Fog can develop very rapidly—visibility can drop from good VFR conditions to near zero in just a few minutes. How Fog Forms Fog forms when air cools to its dew point or when moisture is added to air near the ground. When the air saturates, water vapor condenses on tiny particles in the air. A small temperature–dew point spread is essential for fog to form. Anticipate fog when the spread is 5 degrees F (2.8 degrees C) or less and decreasing. Although fog is most common in coastal areas during the winter, it can form anywhere at any time of the year. Be especially alert for fog in industrial areas, where minute particles in the air make it easy for water vapor to condense into droplets. Types of Fog Fog is classified into several categories based on how it forms: • Radiation fog • Advection fog • Precipitation-induced fog • Upslope fog Regardless of how it forms, fog presents essentially the same problem to pilots: severely restricted, often variable visibility at ground level. In fact, visibility in fog often decreases markedly as you get closer to the ground. Coping With Fog The rules of thumb for coping with fog are simple. Be patient. Avoid VFR flights into areas where fog is forecast. If flying IFR, be prepared to divert to an alternate airport—or wait on the ground. TIP: To learn how you can change the visibility in Flight Simulator, see the topic "Changing Visibility" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. Related Topics Weather Hazards Changing Visibility Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Thunderstorms
	Thunderstorms Thunderstorms remain one of the greatest threats to all types of aircraft. They spawn hail, torrential rain, lightning, and microbursts. A thunderstorm, or cell, is a cumulonimbus cloud. It may appear alone in the sky, join with other cumulonimbus to form a squall line, or lurk as an embedded storm, hidden in layers of stratocumulus clouds. Individual thunderstorms measure from less than 5 mi (8 km) to more than 30 mi (50 km) in diameter. The bases of the cumulonimbus range from a few hundred meters in very moist climates to 10,000 ft (3,000 m) or higher in drier regions. Tops generally range from 25,000–45,000 ft (7,600–13,700 m) but can rise above 65,000 ft (20 km). Life Cycle of a Thunderstorm Thunderstorms have three stages, each of which poses threats to aircraft. • During the initial or cumulus stage, updrafts push moist, unstable air aloft. As the air cools, water vapor condenses, releasing heat. That energy helps push the air higher, drawing more water vapor into the cloud. For a while, the updraft is self-sustaining, creating towering cumulonimbus clouds. • Rain begins during the second, or mature, stage of a thunderstorm. This stage presents the most violent weather, including lightning, hail, and severe turbulence. • Strong downdrafts are the main feature of the third, dissipating stage. They rapidly exhaust the storm's energy, leaving fragmented clouds behind. TIP: To learn how you can create thunderstorms in Flight Simulator, see the topic "Creating Cloud Layers" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. Related Topics Thunderstorms: Dos and Don'ts Flying Through a Thunderstorm Weather Hazards Creating Cloud Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Thunderstorms: Dos and Don'ts
	Thunderstorms: Dos and Don'ts The best advice for coping with thunderstorms is simply "don't." Don't fly into areas where thunderstorms are forecast or reported. Don't go near any thunderstorms that develop as you fly. The turbulence, wind shear, hail, and other hazards associated with a thunderstorm can affect aircraft 20 mi (32 km) from the storm's core. Above all, never regard any thunderstorm as "light" even when reports indicate that echoes from storms are of light intensity. A Little Advice Here's some specific advice for coping with thunderstorms: • Don't land or take off in the face of an approaching thunderstorm. A sudden wind shift or low-level turbulence could cause loss of control. • Don't fly under a thunderstorm even if you can see through to the other side. Severe turbulence under the storm could slam your plane into the ground or tear it apart in the air. • Don't try to circumnavigate thunderstorms covering six-tenths of an area or more. • Don't fly into a cloud mass containing embedded thunderstorms. • Avoid by at least 20 mi (32 km) any thunderstorm identified as severe, giving an intense radar echo, or a storm with a large anvil-shaped top. • Vivid and frequent lightning indicates a severe thunderstorm. • Regard as severe any thunderstorm with tops 35,000 ft (11,000 m) or higher. TIP: To learn how you can create thunderstorms in Flight Simulator, see the topic "Creating Cloud Layers" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. Related Topics Thunderstorms Flying Through a Thunderstorm Weather Hazards Creating Cloud Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	Flying Through a Thunderstorm If you end up inside a thunderstorm, you're in for a rough ride. Here are some suggestions that might help you make it out the other side: • Tighten your safety belt, put on your shoulder harness, and secure all loose objects. • Plan and hold a course to take you through the storm in the minimum time. Don't turn back once you are in a thunderstorm. A straight course usually gets you out of the hazards most quickly. Turning also increases the likelihood that you'll overstress or lose control of the aircraft. • Turn on pitot heat and carburetor heat or jet inlet heat. Ice can accumulate rapidly at any altitude and cause almost instantaneous power failure or loss of airspeed indications. • Set and maintain power to establish your aircraft's turbulence penetration airspeed (maneuvering speed). Lower airspeed reduces stresses on the aircraft. • Maintain a constant attitude, but don't try to hold altitude. Let the aircraft "ride the waves." If using the automatic pilot, disengage the altitude hold function. Trying to maintain constant altitude increases stress on the aircraft. • Turn up cockpit lights to highest intensity to lessen danger of temporary blindness from lightning. • Keep your eyes on the instruments. Looking outside the cockpit can cause temporary blindness from lightning. Related Topics Thunderstorms: Dos and Don'ts Microbursts Weather Hazards Creating Cloud Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	Wind Shear Wind shear occurs at the boundary between two wind currents of different speed, direction, or both. Eddies form around the boundary, creating turbulence. Aircraft flying through a wind shear zone may experience wide fluctuations in airspeed and abrupt changes in altitude. Where You Find It Wind shear is most often associated with: • Microbursts and thunderstorms. These phenomena can generate intense downdrafts. • Low-level temperature inversions. When taking off or landing in calm wind under clear skies near sunrise, be prepared for a temperature inversion near the ground, especially if the wind at 2,000–4,000 ft (600–1,200 m) is 25 knots or more. • Frontal zones. Wind changes abruptly at a front and can induce wind shear turbulence. • Clear Air Turbulence (CAT). Clear air turbulence is usually a high-altitude phenomenon associated with the jet stream. Coping With Wind Shear Dealing with wind shear is primarily a matter of careful control of airspeed. If you expect to encounter wind shear at low altitude, allow a margin of airspeed above normal climb or approach speed to reduce the chance of stalling in turbulence or with a sudden change in wind velocity. Don't just blast through a wind shear zone, however. Keep airspeed at or below maneuvering speed to avoid overstressing the aircraft if you encounter turbulence. TIP: You can simulate wind shear in Flight Simulator by creating wind layers. For more information, see the topic "Creating Wind Layers" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. Related Topics Microbursts Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) Weather Hazards Creating Wind Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Microbursts
	Microbursts Microbursts are small, intense downdrafts which, on reaching the surface, spread outward in all directions from the center, like water poured onto the ground. Microbursts can create a severe wind shear hazard for aircraft within 1000 ft (300 m) of the ground, particularly during the approach to landing, during landing, and during takeoff. Encounter With a Microburst An aircraft flying through a microburst typically encounters a strong headwind, which temporarily increases airspeed and decreases descent rate. The headwind suddenly becomes a downdraft and strong tailwind, which together cause a high sink rate and a rapid drop in airspeed. Small, Brief, and Intense A microburst is typically less than about 1 mi (1.6 km) in diameter as it descends from the cloud base to 1,000–3,000 ft (300–900 m) above the ground. In the transition zone near the ground, the downdraft changes to a horizontal outflow that can extend to approximately 2.5 mi (4 km) in diameter. An individual microburst seldom lasts longer than 15 minutes from the time it strikes the ground until it dissipates. The horizontal winds increase during the first 5 minutes, with maximum intensity winds lasting 2–4 minutes. Downdrafts in a microburst can be as strong as 6000 feet per minute. Horizontal winds near the surface can be as strong as 45 knots, creating a 90-knot headwind-to-tailwind change for an aircraft traversing the microburst. Where They Form Microbursts can appear almost anywhere in areas with convective activity. They may be embedded in heavy rain associated with a thunderstorm or appear in light rain associated with virga. When little or no precipitation accompanies a microburst, a ring of blowing dust may be the only visual clue of its existence. Coping With Microbursts The best advice for coping with microbursts is to avoid them. You should be alert for wind shear PIREPs whenever thunderstorms or convective activity is forecast. If you do tangle with a microburst, you must fly the airplane at the edge of its maximum climb performance envelope. Bring the nose up quickly to the maximum climb attitude and apply full power. Hold that attitude—even if airspeed drops near stalling speed—until you have flown out of the microburst. Related Topics Wind Shear Thunderstorms Weather Hazards Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Clear Air Turbulence (CAT)
	Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) Clear air turbulence (CAT) is turbulence not associated with any visible weather phenomena. CAT typically develops near the jet stream, especially where it curves sharply around a deepening trough. It is strongest in winter when the contrast between cold and warm air is greatest. You can also encounter CAT in wind shears associated with the sharply curved contours of strong lows, troughs, and ridges aloft, and in areas of strong cold or warm air advection. Mountain waves can also create CAT that extends from the mountain crests as high as 5000 ft (1500 m) above the tropopause. The turbulence can extend 100 mi (160 km) or more downstream from the mountains. Coping With CAT PIREPs are the best source of information about CAT. Changing altitude is the best method for avoiding most CAT. It may not be possible to fly out of CAT by changing course unless you're prepared to fly a great distance out of your way. Make sure you offer PIREPs to your fellow pilots if you encounter CAT. TIP: You can simulate CAT in Flight Simulator by creating wind layers. For more information, see the topic "Creating Wind Layers" in the Using Flight Simulator section of Help. Related Topics Wind Shear Weather Hazards Creating Wind Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Sources of weather information
	Sources of Weather Information Most countries have agencies that provide aviation weather reports and forecasts. In the U.S., pilots usually get official weather briefings and file flight plans with a Flight Service Station (FSS). Other sources of preflight weather information include: • Weather service (MET) offices • Television • Computer/fax services • Commercial weather services • The World Wide Web Although regulations require pilots to get an official weather briefing, the variety of weather information available today, especially through the Internet, can help pilots prepare for a thorough briefing. In particular, weather charts, radar and satellite images, and specific reports can help pilots visualize and understand large weather systems and note areas of hazardous weather. A good place to start on the Web is the Microsoft Flight Simulator page (http://www.microsoft.com/games/FSIM/). It has links to many aviation-related sites. Getting Weather En Route Pilots can get updated weather reports and forecasts from several sources. Flight Service Stations monitor a network of remote radio receivers and transmitters and can provide weather information in a variety of forms. Other services include: • TWEB • Enroute Flight Advisory Service (Flight Watch) • Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) TIP: ATIS is the primary source of weather information in Flight Simulator. For more information about receiving ATIS broadcasts, see the topic "ATIS," later in this section. Related Topics ATIS Weather Features in Flight Simulator


ATIS
	ATIS Busy airports with operating control towers often have Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) to broadcast current weather, runway in use, and other routine information. The ATIS plays on a continuous loop. Controllers don't have to repeat the same information to each arriving or departing aircraft, and pilots can listen to the information before they taxi to the runway or as they approach an airport. Alpha, Bravo, Charlie An ATIS recording is updated whenever weather observers issue a new weather report or when other pertinent information changes. It is usually updated about every hour. Each ATIS recording is assigned a letter of the alphabet. For example, the ATIS broadcast for 11:00 A.M. might be assigned the letter "D," pronounced "delta" according to the ICAO phonetic alphabet. The next broadcast would be designated "Echo," and so forth. ATIS Sequence ATIS information follows the sequence used in the METAR: · location of the reporting station • time of the latest weather report in UTC • wind direction and speed • visibility and obstructions to visibility • current weather (for example, precipitation) • clouds (coverage, type, and height above ground) • temperature • dew point (if available) • altimeter setting • remarks • instrument approach • runway in use In the U.S., the ceiling and visibility may be omitted from the ATIS if the ceiling is above 5,000 ft (1,500 m) and the visibility is more than 5 mi (8 km). Information Received Pilots should notify air traffic controllers that they have received the ATIS broadcast by repeating the broadcast's letter designation on initial call to ground control for taxi instructions or when first making contact with approach control or the tower during arrival. For example, assume the current ATIS is "Bravo." On first contact with approach control, the pilot of Cessna Centurion 3743Y flying at 5000 ft should say, "Approach, Centurion 3743Y, level at five thousand with Bravo." ATIS Frequencies ATIS is broadcast on VHF frequencies. The ATIS frequency for a particular airport is printed on navigation charts and in the Airport/Facilities Directory. Related Topics Weather Reports Weather Forecasts Tuning the COM Radio Using the Airport/Facilities Directory


Weather Reports
	Weather Reports Government agencies issue many types of aviation weather reports, advisories, and bulletins. The most important reports for pilots are the: • Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) • Pilot Reports (PIREP or UA) Pilots also use a variety of weather charts, including the Surface Analysis Chart, which graphically show the position of fronts, areas of VFR and IFR conditions, and other data. In addition to surface reports, weather offices issue reports on conditions in the upper atmosphere. Radar and satellite images are also available to help pilots get a complete weather picture. Contents of a Report It's not possible to list all the details of all the reports here. In general, however, surface-based reports include the following information: type of report, station designator, time of report, wind, visibility and obstructions to visibility, sky condition, temperature and dew point, altimeter setting, and remarks. The reports use a standard set of codes and abbreviations to provide the information in compact form. For example, in a METAR, the sequence "08032G45KT" reports a wind from 080 degrees (measured with respect to true north) at 32 knots with gusts to 45 knots. Reports on conditions in the upper atmosphere are usually presented in graphical form. They show winds and circulation patterns, turbulence, and other details. Complete information about weather reports is available from a variety of sources, including many sites on the Internet. Related Topics METAR  Weather Forecasts ATIS Weather Features in Flight Simulator


Weather Forecasts
	Weather Forecasts Government agencies issue many types of aviation weather forecasts. The most important reports for pilots are the: • Area forecast (FA) • International Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) Like surface weather reports, forecasts use a variety of codes and abbreviations to present the weather in a compact, standardized format. It's not possible to list the details of each type of forecast here. In general, however, forecasts include the following information: type of forecast; station designator; valid time for the forecast; and the predicted wind, visibility, clouds, and potential hazards. Complete information about weather reports is available from a variety of sources, including many sites on the Internet. Related Topics Terminal Forecast (TAF) Weather Reports Weather Features in Flight Simulator


METAR
	METAR The METAR is the standard aviation weather report used around the world. At many airports, especially those served by airlines, human observers record and issue METAR reports once every hour or whenever changing conditions warrant new reports. Automatic weather reporting stations issue continuous weather observations at many smaller airports. The METAR Sequence Every METAR follows the same basic sequence: • Station identifier. This code identifies the airport at which the observation was taken. The IDs for airports in the U.S. begin with the letter "K," as in "KSFO" for San Francisco. • Time of report, given in UTC (indicated by the letter "Z") and in 24-hour format. For example, "1850Z" means the observation was recorded at 6:50 P.M. UTC. • Wind direction and speed. This information appears as a five-digit group, plus information about gusts, if necessary. For example, "19012G20KT" means the wind is blowing from 190 degrees relative to true north at 12 knots. A "G" in the wind section indicates gusts at least 10 knots higher than the average wind during the preceding 10 minutes. In this example, the gusts are 20 knots—"KT" is included to confirm that the speed is in knots. Variable winds—winds that have shifted more than 60 degrees—are indicated by "V." For example, "080V150" in the wind section means the wind direction is shifting between 080 degrees and 150 degrees. • Visibility measured in statute miles (in the U.S.). For example "1/2SM" means the current visibility is 0.5 mi. • Runway visual range (RVR). If this value is available, it's reported in a four-digit group preceded by "R" and the runway designation. In the U.S., "FT" is appended to indicate values in feet. For example, the sequence "R31L/2400FT" indicates the RVR for runway 31 left is 2,400 ft. • Current weather. This section is a series of abbreviations for rain, thunderstorms, fog, and other phenomena. For example, "RA" indicates rain, "FG" fog, "HZ" haze, and so forth. A minus sign () preceding an abbreviation indicates "light"; a plus sign (+) indicates heavy rain, fog, and so forth. For more information, see “METAR/TAF Abbreviations,” later in this section of Help. • Clouds. The next group of letters and numbers gives the amount of cloud coverage, the height of the clouds (in hundreds of feet), and in the case of cumulonimbus and towering cumulonimbus, the type of clouds. "SKC" indicates a clear sky, "FEW" indicates clouds covering one-eighth to two-eighths of the sky. "SCT" means clouds cover three-eighths to four-eighths. "BKN" and "OVC" indicate broken and overcast conditions. The first BKN or OVC layer is the ceiling. For example, the sequence "SCT025 BKN040" reports scattered clouds at 2,500 ft and broken clouds forming a ceiling at 4,000. • Temperature/dew point. These values are reported in degrees Celsius, even in the U.S. Negative values are preceded by the letter "M." • Altimeter setting. This value is given in inches of mercury (Hg). An "A" for "altimeter" precedes this four-digit sequence. For example, "A3012" indicates the altimeter setting is 30.12 in Hg. • Remarks. This section is preceded by "RMK" and contains additional comments about the weather, such as wind shear, tower visibility, lightning, and so forth. Related Topics Terminal Forecast (TAF) Weather Reports Weather Forecasts Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	Terminal Forecasts (TAF) The terminal forecast, or TAF, is the international standard for issuing aviation-related weather predictions. The TAF uses the same abbreviations as the METAR, and the information appears in the following sequence: • Station identifier. This code identifies the airport at which the observation was taken. The IDs for airports in the U.S. begin with the letter "K," as in "KSFO" for San Francisco. • Date and time when the forecast was issued, given in UTC (indicated by the letter "Z") and in 24-hour format. For example, "211850Z" means the forecast was issued on the twenty-first day of the month at 6:50 P.M. UTC. • The time in UTC during which the forecast is valid, usually a 24-hour period on the day the forecast was issued. For example, if "1818" follows the date-time group, the forecast is valid from 1800Z on the twenty-first through 1800Z on the twenty-second. • Wind direction and speed. This information appears as a five-digit group, plus information about gusts, if necessary. For example, "19012G20KT" means the wind is coming from 190 degrees relative to true north at 12 knots. A "G" in the wind section indicates gusts at least 10 knots higher than the average wind during the preceding 10 minutes. In this example, the gusts are 20 knots—"KT" is included to confirm that the speed is in knots, not km/h. Variable winds—winds that have shifted more than 60 degrees—are indicated by "V." For example, "080V150" in the wind section means the wind direction is shifting between 080 degrees and 150 degrees. • Visibility measured in statute miles (in the U.S.). For example "1/2SM" means the current visibility is 0.5 mi. If the visibility is expected to be more than six statute miles, the visibility section reads "P6SM." • Forecast weather. This section uses the same abbreviations for weather phenomena as the METAR. For example, "RA" indicates rain, "FG" fog, "HZ" haze, and so forth. A minus sign (-) preceding an abbreviation indicates "light"; a plus sign (+) indicates heavy rain, fog, and so forth. • Clouds. The next group of letters and numbers gives the predicted amount of cloud coverage, the height of the clouds (in hundreds of feet), and in the case of cumulonimbus and towering cumulonimbus, the type of clouds. "SKC" indicates a clear sky, "FEW" indicates clouds covering one-eighth to two-eighths of the sky. "SCT" means clouds cover three-eighths to four-eighths. "BKN" and "OVC" indicate broken and overcast conditions. The first BKN or OVC layer is the ceiling. For example, the sequence "SCT025 BKN040" predicts scattered clouds at 2500 ft and broken clouds forming a ceiling at 4000. • Other details. A TAF often contains additional abbreviations that indicate the probability and rate of change of the predicted weather. For example, "BECMG" indicates a gradual change; "TEMPO" means the predicted weather will change over a period of less than one hour; "NSW" means "no significant weather;" "PROB" followed by a two-digit number indicates the probability (in percentage) of a particular phenomenon occurring. Related Topics METAR  Weather Reports Weather Forecasts Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	METAR/TAF Abbreviations Throughout the world, standard aviation weather reports (METARs) and Terminal Forecasts (TAFs) use the same set of abbreviations and codes to describe observed or predicted weather. The abbreviations are generally based on English or French words. Here's a sample of the most common abbreviations: • Precipitation: DZ = drizzle, RA = rain, SN = snow, GR = hail, UP = unknown. • Restrictions to visibility (obscuration): BR = mist, FG = fog, FU = smoke, HZ = haze, DU = widespread dust. • Other phenomena: SQ = squall, SS = sandstorm, DS = dust storm, FC = funnel cloud. • Other codes: "+" = heavy, "-" = light, VC = vicinity of the airport (5–10 mi), MI = shallow, BC = patches, DR = drifting, TS = thunderstorms, BL = blowing, SH = showers, FZ = supercooled/freezing. Complete details on the METAR and TAF formats, including all abbreviations and codes, are available from many sources, including the Internet. To get the latest information, use your Web browser's search capability to look for "METAR" and "TAF." Related Topics Weather Reports Weather Forecasts METAR Terminal Forecasts (TAF)


	To start flying right away, click Fly Now.


	To quit Flight Simulator, click Exit.


	To try an interactive flying lesson, click Learn To Fly.


	To choose an aircraft, location, and other options for a custom flight, click Create A Flight.


	To choose from a list of existing flights, click Select A Flight.


	To fly with other pilots at the Internet Gaming Zone or over the Internet, a LAN, or a direct connection, click Multiplayer.


	To show this opening screen whenever you start Flight Simulator, click Show This Screen At Startup.


	Gives you a brief description of the options available to you.


	Use this dialog box to select a flight supplied with Flight Simulator or a flight that you've saved using the Create Flight command. Creating a Flight Choosing a Flight You Created


	To see the list of flights supplied with Flight Simulator and flights that you've saved using the Create Flight command, click the small up or down arrow on the right, and then select a flight. Creating a Flight Choosing a Flight You Created


	Describes the flight you've selected.


	Deletes the selected flight. You can delete only flights you created with the Create Flight command. Creating a Flight


	To start this flight whenever you start Flight Simulator, click Make This The Default Flight.


	To close the dialog box and start the flight you selected, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without selecting a flight, click Close or press ESC.


	After you've selected an aircraft, location, weather, and time of day for a flight in the Create Flight dialog box, use this dialog box to type a name and description for the flight. Creating a Flight


	Type a title for your flight.


	Type a description for your flight.


	To start this flight whenever you start Flight Simulator, click Make This The Default Flight.


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to select from dozens of short flights that challenge your skill in a variety of aircraft at different locations and in varied weather conditions.


	To see the list of challenges, click the small up or down arrow on the right, and then select the one you want to fly.


	This brief description includes basic information about the selected challenge. For more information about the aircraft you can fly, see the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. Aircraft Handbooks: Introduction


	To close the dialog box and fly the selected challenge, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without flying a challenge, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to choose an adventure, an interactive flight with air traffic control instructions. You can find more information about these flights in the Preflight Briefings section of Help. Preflight Briefings: Introduction


	To see the list of interactive flights with air traffic control instructions, click the small up or down arrow on the right, then select an adventure. You can find detailed information about each of these flights in the Preflight Briefings section of Help. Preflight Briefings: Introduction


	This brief description includes basic information about the selected adventure. You can find detailed information about these flights in the Preflight Briefings section of Help. Preflight Briefings: Introduction


	To close the dialog box and start the selected adventure, click OK.


	To close the dialog box and return to Flight Simulator, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to choose the aircraft you want to fly. For more information about the aircraft, see the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. Aircraft Handbooks: Introduction


	To see the list of aircraft, click the small up or down arrow on the right, and then select an aircraft. For more information about the aircraft, see the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. Aircraft Handbooks: Introduction


	This area displays a basic description for each aircraft. For more information about the aircraft, see the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. Aircraft Handbooks: Introduction


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	This area describes the basic performance specifications of the selected aircraft. For more information about the aircraft, see the Aircraft Handbooks section of Help. Aircraft Handbooks: Introduction


	Deletes the selected aircraft. You can delete only aircraft created for Flight Simulator for Windows 95 that you've added to the Pilots folder on your hard drive.


	To close the dialog box and use the selected aircraft as the current aircraft, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without changing the current aircraft, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to tune and set the navigation radios, set the transponder and ADF, and select options for the electronic flight information system and command flight path display. Tuning the NAV Radios Using EFIS/CFPD


	Click these tabs to see more options.


	Click here to set options for the Electronic Flight Instruments/Command Flight Path Display that generates an electronic pathway for you to follow as you fly. Using EFIS/CFPD


	Click here to tune and set the navigation radios. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	Click here to set the transponder code and tune the ADF radio. Setting the Transponder Activating and Tuning the ADF


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Use this area of the dialog box to select the frequency for the NAV 1 radio and the radial for the number one VOR indicator (OBS). Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	Type the frequency of the VOR station or ILS that you want to receive on the NAV 1 radio. The frequency should be in the range 108.0–117.95. You can find information about VORs and ILS approaches in the Airport/Facility Directory in Help. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Type the radial you want to set in the VOR 1 indicator (OBI). The radial should be in the range 001–360. VOR Navigation Selecting a Course in the OBI


	Displays information about the VOR station tuned in the NAV1 radio if that station is within reception range. You can find information about specific VORs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Help. VOR Navigation Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Displays the latitude for the VOR station tuned in the NAV1 radio if that station is within reception range. You can find information about specific VORs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Help. VOR Navigation Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Displays the latitude for the VOR station tuned in the NAV2 radio if that station is within reception range. You can find information about specific VORs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Help. VOR Navigation Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Displays the longitude for the VOR station tuned in the NAV1 radio if that station is within reception range. You can find information about specific VORs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Help. VOR Navigation Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Displays the longitude for the VOR station tuned in the NAV2 radio if that station is within reception range. You can find information about specific VORs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Help. VOR Navigation Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	This message appears when a localizer frequency is used for two ILS approaches to the same runway. Select the localizer you want to fly in the Localizer box or select Auto Select. You can find information about the ILS approaches available at an airport in the Airport/Facility Directory in Help. Instrument Landing System (ILS) Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	When a localizer frequency is used for two ILS approaches to the same runway, you can select the localizer you want to fly in the Localizer box. Select Auto Select if you want Flight Simulator to choose the localizer. You can find information about the ILS approaches available at an airport in the Airport/Facility Directory in Help. Instrument Landing System (ILS) Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Use this area of the dialog box to select the frequency for the NAV2 radio and the radial for the number two VOR indicator (OBI). Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	Type the frequency of the VOR station that you want to receive on the NAV2 radio. The frequency should be in the range 108.0–117.95. You can find information about VORs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Help. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Type the radial you want to set in the VOR 2 indicator (OBI). The radial should be in the range 001–360. VOR Navigation Selecting a Course in the OBI


	Displays information about the VOR station tuned in the NAV2 radio if that station is within reception range. You can find information about specific VORs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Help. VOR Navigation Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To display the VOR 2 indicator instead of the ADF indicator on the Extra 300S instrument panel, click VOR 2 Gauge Active. VOR Navigation


	Type the transponder code or "squawk" assigned by air traffic control. Each digit can be in the range 0–7. If you're flying VFR, select code 1200. Do not squawk 7500, 7600, or 7700 except in an emergency. Setting the Transponder


	Type the automatic direction finder (ADF) frequency. It should be in the range 200–1600 (if you have not selected the 100 Hz Frequency Increment option in the Preferences dialog box) or 200.00–1600.00 (if that option is selected). Make sure the ADF Gauge Active option is selected. Activating and Tuning the ADF Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)


	This area displays information about the NDB tuned in the ADF radio if that NDB is within reception range. This information is valid only if the ADF Gauge Active option is selected. You can find information about NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Help. Activating and Tuning the ADF Non-Directional Beacons (NDB) Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	This area displays the name of the NDB tuned in the ADF radio if that NDB is within reception range. This information is valid only if the ADF Gauge Active option is selected. You can find information about NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Help. Activating and Tuning the ADF Non-Directional Beacons (NDB) Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	This area displays the latitude of the NDB tuned in the ADF radio if that NDB is within reception range. This information is valid only if the ADF Gauge Active option is selected. You can find information about NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Help. Activating and Tuning the ADF Non-Directional Beacons (NDB) Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	This area displays the longitude of the NDB tuned in the ADF radio if that NDB is within reception range. This information is valid only if the ADF Gauge Active option is selected. You can find information about NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Help. Activating and Tuning the ADF Non-Directional Beacons (NDB) Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To display the ADF indicator instead of the VOR 2 indicator in the Extra 300S, select this option. Activating and Tuning the ADF Non-Directional Beacons (NDB) Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	The Electronic Flight Instruments display generates an electronic pathway for you to follow as you fly. To activate the EFIS display, click EFIS Master Switch, and then select the type, density, and range of the EFIS you want to see. Using EFIS/CFPD


	Use this option to select the type of Electronic Flight Instruments display you want to see. Make sure the EFIS Master Switch is on, and then click the small arrow on the right to select a specific EFIS display. Using EFIS/CFPD


	Use this option to set the density of the Electronic Flight Instruments display. Make sure the EFIS Master Switch is on, and then click the small arrow on the right to select a density. Using EFIS/CFPD


	Use this option to set the length of the path generated by the Electronic Flight Instruments display. Make sure the EFIS Master Switch is on, and then click the small arrow on the right to select a range. Using EFIS/CFPD


	If you want the EFIS path to remain at a specific altitude as you track a VOR radial, make sure the EFIS Master Switch is on and then type the altitude in feet above mean sea level (for example, 5000). This option is available only when Lock To VOR And Altitude Tracking and either VOR 1 or VOR 2 is selected. Using EFIS/CFPD VOR Navigation


	If you want the EFIS path to guide you down an ILS approach, make sure the EFIS Master Switch is on and then click Lock To ILS/LOC For Landing Approach. Using EFIS/CFPD Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	If you want the EFIS path to track a VOR radial at a specific altitude, make sure the EFIS Master Switch is on and then click Lock To VOR And Altitude Tracking. Select either VOR 1 or VOR 2 as the source of the signal you want to track. Type the altitude you want to fly in the Altitude box. Using EFIS/CFPD VOR Navigation


	Select VOR 1 if you want the EFIS to guide you along the radial selected for the VOR station tuned in the number NAV 1 radio. This option is available only if the EFIS Master Switch and Lock To VOR And Altitude Tracking options are selected. Using EFIS/CFPD VOR Navigation


	Select VOR 2 if you want the EFIS to guide you along the radial selected for the VOR station tuned in the number NAV 2 radio. This option is available only if the EFIS Master Switch and Lock To VOR And Altitude Tracking options are selected. Using EFIS/CFPD VOR Navigation


	If you want the EFIS to display a path to intercept an ILS or a VOR radial, click Plot Intercepting Path. This option is available only if the EFIS Master Switch and either the Lock to ILS/LOC For Landing Approach or Lock To VOR And Altitude Tracking options are selected. Using EFIS/CFPD VOR Navigation Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	Use this dialog box to tune the communications radio and to control Air Traffic Control messages. You can also use the mouse or the keyboard to tune the communications radio. Tuning the COM Radio Communicating with Air Traffic Control


	To use the communications radio to receive ATIS broadcasts and air traffic control communications, type the appropriate frequency (in the range 118.0–136.95). You can find ATIS frequencies in the Airport/Facility Directory in Help. ATIS Tuning the COM Radio Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Select these options to request clearance to land or take off.


	To stop the display of air traffic control messages, click None.


	To request takeoff clearance from air traffic control, click Request To Take Off. Operations at Controlled Airports


	To request landing clearance from air traffic control, click Request To Land. Operations at Controlled Airports


	To display the last ATIS message again, click Replay ATIS Message. You can find ATIS frequencies in the Airport/Facility Directory in Help. ATIS Tuning the COM Radio Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To set a faster or slower rate of communication, drag the slider to the right or left.


	Slowest rate of communication.


	Highest rate of communication.


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to change autopilot settings. You can also control many autopilot functions with the mouse or the keyboard. Using the Autopilot Key Combinations for Autopilot Controls


	To make the autopilot maintain the current heading, click HDG - Heading Hold. The heading hold function disengages after you intercept and track a VOR radial or an ILS approach with the NAV or APP function. Using the Autopilot Heading Indicator


	To make the autopilot hold the wings level, click LVL - Wing Leveler. The LVL function disengages after you intercept and track a VOR radial or an ILS approach with the NAV or APP function. Using the Autopilot Attitude Indicator Turn Coordinator


	To turn on the autopilot, click Autopilot Active. You cannot select autopilot functions unless this button is selected. Using the Autopilot


	To make the autopilot maintain your current altitude or an altitude that you specify, click ALT - Altitude Hold. The ALT function disengages after you intercept and track an ILS approach with the APP function. Using the Autopilot Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	To make the autopilot maintain the aircraft's current pitch and bank, click ATT - Pitch & Bank Hold. The ATT function disengages after you intercept and track a VOR radial or an ILS approach with the NAV or APP function. Using the Autopilot Attitude Indicator


	To make the autopilot intercept and track a VOR radial, an ILS localizer and glide slope, or an ILS back course click the appropriate option under Navigation Mode. Using the Autopilot Instrument Landing System (ILS) VOR Navigation


	Type the magnetic heading you want the autopilot to maintain (the number should be in the range 001–360). If you don’t type a heading, the autopilot maintains the current heading. Using the Autopilot Heading Indicator


	Type the altitude above sea level you want the autopilot to maintain (for example, 15000—don't include commas). If you don’t type an altitude, the autopilot maintains the current altitude. Using the Autopilot Altimeter


	The yaw damper moves the rudder automatically to help control "fishtailing" and "Dutch roll" in some aircraft, particularly jets with swept wings. To activate the yaw damper, click Yaw Damper. The yaw damper should be turned off during takeoff and landing. Using the Autopilot The Axes of Flight


	Click this option if you want the autopilot to adjust power to maintain the current indicated airspeed or an airspeed you specify. You must arm the Autothrottle feature to use this option. Using the Autopilot Airspeed Indicator


	Click this option if you want the autopilot to maintain the current rate of climb or descent (in feet per minute) or a rate that you specify. Using the Autopilot Vertical Speed Indicator


	Click this option if you want the autopilot to maintain the current rate of climb or descent (in feet per minute) or a rate that you specify. Using the Autopilot Vertical Speed Indicator


	Click this button if you want the autopilot to adjust power to maintain the current indicated airspeed or an airspeed you specify. Using the Autopilot Airspeed Indicator


	Click this button if you want the autopilot to adjust power to maintain the current Mach number or the Mach number you specify. Using the Autopilot Airspeed Indicator


	Click this button if you want to activate the Airspeed Hold or Mach Hold functions on the autopilot. After you select this option you can specify the indicated airspeed or Mach number that you want the autopilot to maintain. Using the Autopilot Airspeed Indicator


	Type the rate of climb or descent (in feet per minute) that you want the autopilot to maintain. The value must in the range -6000–+7000.  Using the Autopilot


	Click this button if you want to the autopilot to set takeoff power automatically. You can use this option after you line up on the runway for takeoff or if you decide abort a landing approach. Using the Autopilot


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


# IDH_510_3332

	To create a custom flight using the aircraft, location, weather, and other options that you choose, click the buttons below and fill in options as each dialog box appears. Creating a Flight Aircraft Handbooks: Introduction Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	To pick an aircraft for your custom flight, click Select Aircraft. Aircraft Handbooks: Introduction


	To pick the departure airport for your custom flight, click Select Airport. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To set the weather for your custom flight, click Select Weather. Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	To set the time of day and season for your custom flight, click Select Time of Day. Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	To pick an aircraft for your custom flight, click Select Aircraft. Aircraft Handbooks: Introduction


	To pick the departure airport for your custom flight, click Select Airport. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To set the weather for your custom flight, click Select Weather. Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	To set the time of day and season for your custom flight, click Select Time of Day. Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	To save the options you’ve selected, click Save.


	To start the flight with the options you selected, click OK.


	To return to the current flight and ignore the options you selected, click Cancel.


# IDH_511_3328


	Click here to start a flight that will test your flying skills.


	Click here to choose from a variety of interesting flights.


	Click here to start an adventure—a flight with realistic air traffic control.


	Gives you a brief description of the options available to you.


	To close the dialog box without selecting a flight, click Close or press ESC.


	To choose an interactive flying lesson, get help on using Flight Simulator, or to learn more about flying, click Learn to Fly.


	To choose an interactive flying lesson, click Lessons.


	To get help on using Flight Simulator, click Flight Simulator Help.


	To learn about flying, click Pilot Training.


	To start an interactive flying lesson or get help, click a globe.


	To return to the Flight Simulator opening screen, click Close or press ESC.


	Use this dialog box to select an interactive lesson. You can find more information about lessons in the Preflight Briefings section of Help. Preflight Briefings: Introduction


	Click Student if you want to fly the lesson yourself. Click Instructor if you want to watch the instructor fly the lesson. Instructor versions are not available for all lessons. You can find more information about each lesson in the Preflight Briefings section of Help. Preflight Briefings: Introduction


	To see the list of lessons, click the small up or down arrow on the right, and then select a lesson. You can find more information about each lesson in the Preflight Briefings section of Help. Preflight Briefings: Introduction


	Describes the selected lesson. You can find more information about each lesson in the Preflight Briefings section of Help. Preflight Briefings: Introduction


	To close the dialog box and fly the selected lesson, click OK.


	To close the dialog box and return to Flight Simulator, click CANCEL.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	To return to Flight Simulator, click OK.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	To close the dialog box and select your changes, click OK.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	The altimeter is a sensitive barometer that measures air pressure. It's calibrated to display that air pressure as height, usually in feet above mean sea level (MSL). Altimeter The Pitot Static Instruments


	To display altitude accurately, you must turn the altimeter setting knob to set the current barometric pressure (adjusted to sea-level pressure). To set the altimeter in Flight Simulator, press B.  Altimeter The Pitot Static Instruments


	The autopilot panel contains controls for the autopilot functions. The autopilot can hold the wings level, maintain altitude or a specific rate of climb or descent, maintain a specific airspeed or Mach number, hold a heading, track navigation signals from a VOR or ILS, or maintain the current aircraft pitch and bank attitude. Using the Autopilot


	The autopilot master switch turns the autopilot on and off. You can click the indicator or press Z to turn the autopilot on or off. Using the Autopilot


	The autopilot heading hold button (HDG) turns the heading hold function on and off. When this function is on, the autopilot maintains the heading selected in the heading window and marked by the orange "bug" on the HSI. To turn the HDG function on and off, make sure the autopilot master switch is on (press Z), and then click this indicator or press CTRL+H. Using the Autopilot


	The autopilot altitude hold button turns the altitude hold function on and off. This function maintains the altitude shown in the altitude window. To turn the altitude hold function on and off, make sure the autopilot master switch is on (press Z), and then click this indicator or press CTRL+Z. Using the Autopilot


	The autopilot navigation hold button turns the navigation hold function on and off. In this mode, the autopilot tracks the radial selected in the number 1 VOR indicator. To turn the navigation hold function on and off, make sure the autopilot master switch is on (press Z), and then click this indicator or press CTRL+N. Using the Autopilot VOR Navigation


	The autopilot approach hold button turns the ILS approach function (APR) on and off. In this mode, the autopilot tracks the localizer and glide slope of the ILS tuned into the number 1 navigation radio. To turn the APR function on and off, make sure the autopilot master switch is on (press Z), and then click this indicator or press CTRL+A. Using the Autopilot Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	The autopilot back course hold function allows you to fly the back course of a localizer approach without reverse needle sensing. To turn the back course hold function on and off, make sure the autopilot master switch is on (press Z), and then click this indicator or press CTRL+B. Using the Autopilot Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	The airspeed indicator displays an aircraft's speed relative to the air in which it is moving. Most modern aircraft have airspeed indicators calibrated in knots or in Mach number. The red and white "barber pole" needle shows the maximum allowable airspeed. Airspeed Indicator The Pitot Static Instruments


	The attitude indicator shows the aircraft's pitch and bank attitudes with respect to the ground. Pilots use the attitude indicator, sometimes called the "artificial horizon," when the true horizon isn't visible. Attitude Indicator Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments


	The skid/slip indicator shows whether the airplane is in coordinated flight. It's particularly useful during turns. It works like the inclinometer (the "ball") in the turn coordinator found on smaller aircraft. Turn Coordinator Turns


	The clock displays the current time. To change the time of day in Flight Simulator, click the digits on the clock or click the Time & Season command on the World menu. Changing the Time on the Instrument Panel Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	The simulation rate indicator shows the current simulation speed. Normally this is set to 1 to run the simulation in real time. To speed up or slow down the simulation, click the indicator. Changing Simulation Rate


	The elapsed time indicator shows the time since you started flying. Changing Simulation Rate


	The engine gauges show information about the two turbofan engines—turbine speed, thrust, temperature, and so forth. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The fan speed gauges show the RPM of the low-pressure fan assembly at the front of the turbofan engines. The numbers represent the fan speed as a percentage of maximum RPM. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The EGT gauges show the exhaust gas temperature for each engine. Monitor these gauges closely, especially during takeoff and operation at high power settings. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The turbine speed gauges show the RPM of the core turbines in the turbofan engines. The number represents the percentage of maximum turbine speed. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The fuel flow gauges show the rate of fuel consumption. They are calibrated in thousands of pounds per hour. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The flap indicator and control shows the position of the flaps, the hinged panels on the trailing edge of the wing that swing down during takeoff and landing to increase lift and drag. To operate the flaps, click the indicator or press F7 to extend the flaps in increments or F6 to retract them in increments. Using the Flaps Airplane Handbooks: Introduction


	The fuel gauge shows the quantity of fuel. It's calibrated in thousands of pounds. Fuel System Setting Fuel Options


	The landing gear indicator shows whether the landing gear are extended or retracted. Green lights show that the gear is down; red lights indicate that the gear is up. To extend or retract the landing gear, make sure your airspeed is within the landing gear operating speed range, and then click the indicator or press G. Airplane Handbooks: Introduction


	The oil status gauges show the amount of engine lubricating oil available and its temperature and pressure. Monitor these instruments as you fly to avoid engine damage or failure due to loss of oil, drop in oil pressure, or high oil temperature. Setting Engine Options


	The oil pressure gauge shows whether oil is flowing through the engine. Make sure you monitor this instrument as you fly. If the oil pressure drops, you must land immediately to avoid engine damage or failure. Setting Engine Options


	The oil temperature gauge shows the temperature of the engine oil. Make sure you monitor this instrument as you fly. If the temperature gets too hot, you must shut down the engine or land immediately to avoid engine damage or failure. Setting Engine Options


	The oil quantity displays shows the amount of engine oil available in each engine. The displays are in percent. Make sure you monitor these displays as you fly. If the oil quantity drops, you must land immediately to avoid engine damage or failure. Setting Engine Options


	The hydraulic pressure indicator shows the pressure of the hydraulic fluid in the hydraulic system. The hydraulic system powers the flight controls, flaps, landing gear, and brakes. Setting Engine Options


	The marker beacon lights illuminate when you pass over an outer, middle, or inner marker beacon during an ILS approach. Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	The strobe light indicator and control shows whether the strobe lights are on or off. The strobe lights flash at the end of the wing tips to make your airplane more visible. You should turn them on, day or night, except when flying in clouds or thick haze. To turn the strobe lights on or off, click the indicator or press O.


	The lights/landing light indicator shows whether the aircraft position (navigation) lights are on or off. The landing lights illuminate the runway directly ahead of the aircraft during takeoff and landing. To turn the aircraft lights on or off, click the indicator or press L; to turn the landing light on or off, press CTRL+L. Making Your Flights More Realistic


	The engine 1 start switch starts the left engine and controls its generator. To activate the starter press J, and then press PLUS SIGN or MINUS SIGN to cycle between OFF, STR, and GEN. To shut down the engines, press CTRL+SHIFT+F1. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The engine 2 start switch starts the right engine and controls its generator. To activate the starters press J, and then press PLUS SIGN or MINUS SIGN to cycle between OFF, STR, and GEN. To shut down the engines, press CTRL+SHIFT+F1.  Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The communications radio (COM) receives ATIS broadcasts from airports with operating control towers. It receives frequencies in the range 118.0–135.975 MHz. Tuning the COM Radio ATIS


	The NAV1 radio receives signals from VOR stations and the localizer and glideslope signals from an ILS. It is connected to the HSI and the number one DME indicator. The NAV1 radio receives frequencies in the range 108.0–117.95 MHz. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	The NAV2 radio receives signals from VOR stations. It is connected to the green needle and DME indicator on the Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI). The NAV2 radio receives frequencies in the range 108.0–117.95 MHz. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	The automatic direction finder (ADF) receives signals from non-directional radio beacons (NDBs) or AM radio stations. It is connected to the yellow needle on the Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI). Most NDBs transmit in the frequency range 190–535 kHz. Activating and Tuning the ADF Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)


	The transponder receives signals from air traffic control (ATC) radar and replies with a four-digit identification code, or "squawk," set by the pilot. A computer uses the code to display information about each aircraft on an air traffic controller's radar display. Setting the Transponder


	The Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) shows the aircraft's position relative to the VOR station tuned in the NAV2 radio (green needle) and to the non-directional beacon tuned into the ADF receiver (yellow needle). Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) VOR Navigation


	The spoiler indicator/control shows whether the spoilers on the top of the wings are deployed or retracted. The spoilers decrease the lift generated by the wings and act as speed brakes. To deploy or retract the spoilers, click the indicator or press SLASH (/). Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Boeing 737-400: Introduction


	The thrust levers control engine power, which is read most directly from the N1 gauges. To increase thrust, press F3; to decrease thrust, press F2. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The trim indicator shows the position of the elevator trim. You use this control to relieve control pressure on the stick or yoke as the airplane changes speed. To add nose-down trim, press KEYPAD 7; to add nose-up trim, press KEYPAD 1. Using the Trim Control Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The horizontal situation indicator (HSI) combines the functions of the heading indicator and a VOR/ILS indicator. The outer ring rotates to show the aircraft’s heading. The yellow arrow points to the VOR radial or localizer course selected on the autopilot panel. The magenta indicator is the heading "bug," also set on the autopilot. Horizontal Situation Indicator


	The vertical speed indicator (sometimes called the VSI or rate-of-climb indicator) shows how fast an aircraft is climbing or descending. The VSI is usually calibrated in hundreds of feet per minute in the first segment, with indicators for thousands of feet per minute as you move around the dial. Vertical Speed Indicator The Pitot Static Instruments


	The autopilot wing leveler function keeps the wings level with the horizon. To turn the wing leveler on and off, make sure the autopilot master switch is on (press Z) and then click this indicator or press CTRL+V. Using the Autopilot


	The yaw damper eliminates "Dutch roll," an unpleasant "fishtailing" or rolling and yawing movement that can occur at high altitude, particularly in swept-wing jets. The yaw damper should be off during takeoff and during final approach and landing. To turn the yaw damper on or off, click this indicator or press CTRL+D. Using the Autopilot


	The course select window shows the current VOR or localizer course selected on the HSI. The head of the yellow needle on the HSI points to the selected course. Click the selector to change the course. Using the Autopilot Horizontal Situation Indicator VOR Navigation


	The heading select window shows the current heading selected on the HSI and the heading that the autopilot will hold when the heading hold function is selected. The orange heading "bug" on the HSI indicates the selected heading. Click the selector to change the course. Using the Autopilot Horizontal Situation Indicator


	The altitude select window shows the altitude that the autopilot will maintain when the altitude hold function is selected. Using the Autopilot Altimeter


	The total air temperature gauge shows the current temperature of the air outside the aircraft. Pilots need to know the temperature to calculate true airspeed and density altitude, a critical factor in determining aircraft performance. Moisture and Temperature Creating Temperature Layers


	The landing gear lever extends and retracts the landing gear. To extend or retract the landing gear, make sure your airspeed is within the landing gear operating speed range, and then click the lever or press G. Airplane Handbooks: Introduction


	The engine vibration gauge indicates how smoothly the engine is running. If the turbines get out of balance, the engine could shake itself apart in seconds.. Make sure you monitor this instrument as you fly. Setting Engine Options


	The hydraulic fluid indicator shows the quantity of hydraulic fluid remaining in percent. Setting Engine Options


	The DME 1 indicator shows the distance in nautical miles to the VOR station or ILS transmitter tuned into the number 1 navigation radio. The indicator can also show your ground speed if you are flying directly toward or away from a VOR station. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Tuning the NAV Radios


	The DME 2 indicator shows the distance in nautical miles to the VOR station tuned into the number 2 navigation radio. The indicator can also show your ground speed if you are flying directly toward or away from a VOR station. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Tuning the NAV Radios


	The Mach number select window shows the airspeed that you want the autothrottle system to maintain. You normally use a Mach number reference at high altitude. Using the Autopilot Airspeed Indicator


	The Takeoff/Go-Around button uses the autothrottle system to set takeoff power automatically. You must arm the autothrottle system before using this feature of the autopilot. Using the Autopilot


	The autothrottle button arms the speed hold and Takeoff/Go-Around features of the autopilot. You must arm the autothrottle system before you can use the autopilot to maintain a specified airspeed or Mach number or to set takeoff/go-around power automatically. Using the Autopilot


	Use the N1 reference to mark the maximum engine power you want to set with the thrust levers. Turbine Engine Controls Using the Autopilot


	Use the N1 set control to specify the engine power you want the autothrottle system to maintain. Turbine Engine Controls Using the Autopilot


	The crossfeed switch allows an engine to draw fuel from the tank that normally feeds another engine. You should open the crossfeed valve if you shut down an engine and run low on fuel in the tank that normally supplies the operating engine. Setting Fuel Options Fuel Systems


	The pitot heat switch turns on a heating element in the pitot tube to prevent ice from blocking the inlet. Ice can block the pitot tube if you have set Flight Realism at least one notch above Easy, the outside air temperature is below 32°F (0°C), you are flying in clouds, and you have selected the Icing option in the Advanced Weather dialog box. The Pitot Static Instruments Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	Use the speed hold control to activate the autothrottle feature of the autopilot. When this option is selected, the autopilot can adjust power to maintain a specified airspeed or Mach number. Using the Autopilot


	When  the vertical speed hold option is selected, the autopilot can adjust power and the aircraft’s pitch attitude to maintain a specified rate of climb or descent. Using the Autopilot


	When the speed hold option is selected, the autopilot can adjust power to maintain the airspeed or Mach number you select in the IAS/MACH box. Using the Autopilot


	When  the vertical speed hold option is selected, the autopilot can adjust power and the aircraft’s pitch attitude to maintain the rate of climb or descent you select in the VS box. Using the Autopilot


	The engine 1 thrust lever controls power to the left engine. To increase thrust, press F3; to decrease thrust, press F2. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The engine 2 thrust lever controls power to the right engine. To increase thrust, press F3; to decrease thrust, press F2. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The engine start levers start the engines and control the generators. To activate the starters press J, and then press PLUS SIGN or MINUS SIGN to cycle between OFF, STR, and GEN. To shut down the engines, press CTRL+SHIFT+F1. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The engine 1 generator switch controls the generator on the left engine. To activate the starters press J, and then press PLUS SIGN or MINUS SIGN to cycle between OFF, STR, and GEN. To shut down the engines, press CTRL+SHIFT+F1. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The engine 2 generator controls the generator on the right engine. To activate the starters press J, and then press PLUS SIGN or MINUS SIGN to cycle between OFF, STR, and GEN. To shut down the engines, press CTRL+SHIFT+F1.  Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The navigation radios receive signals from VOR stations and display information on the two omni-bearing indicators (OBIs) and the two DME indicators. They receive frequencies in the range 108.0–117.95 MHz. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	The zoom indicator and control displays the current magnification factor for the active window. To zoom in, either  click to the left of the indicator or press PLUS SIGN; to zoom out, either click to the right or press MINUS SIGN. Zooming In and Out Looking Out the Window


	The lights/landing light indicator shows whether the aircraft lights are on or off. The landing lights illuminate the runway directly ahead of the aircraft during takeoff and landing. To turn the aircraft lights on or off, click the indicator or press L; to turn the landing light on or off, press CTRL+L. Making Your Flights More Realistic


	The aileron control position indicator shows how far the ailerons are deflected to the left or right. Using the Ailerons Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The elevator control position indicator shows how far the elevator is deflected up or down. Using the Elevator Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The rudder control position indicator shows how far the rudder is deflected left or right. Using the Rudder Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The middle marker light illuminates when you pass over the middle marker beacon during an ILS approach. The middle marker is usually located about 3,500 ft (1,067 m) from the end of the runway. Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	The inner marker light illuminates when you pass over the inner marker beacon during an ILS approach. The inner marker is usually located at the point along the approach where you should be at decision height, usually about 200 ft (61 m) above the runway. Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	The back course indicator illuminates when you are flying "backward" on the localizer component of an ILS. Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	The magnetic compass shows the aircraft's heading relative to the earth's magnetic field. Pilots usually use the compass to set the heading indicator, which gives a more stable, easier-to-read indication of the aircraft's heading. Heading Indicator Navigation: Introduction


	The turbine temperature gauges show the engines' core temperature. They are calibrated in hundreds of degrees Celsius. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The autothrottle arm switch makes the autopilot speed hold and automatic go-around/takeoff power functions available. Click this switch and then select a specific autothrottle function. Using the Autopilot


	The takeoff power/go-around switch automatically sets power for takeoff or a missed approach (aborted landing). To use this switch, first click the autothrottle arm switch at the top left of the autopilot control panel, then click this switch. Using the Autopilot


	This switch displays or hides the radio stack in a separate window. Tuning the COM Radio Tuning the NAV Radios Activating and Tuning the ADF Setting the Transponder


	The oil pressure gauge shows whether oil is flowing through the engine. Make sure you monitor this instrument as you fly. If the oil pressure drops, you must land immediately to avoid engine damage or failure. Setting Engine Options


	The oil temperature gauge shows the temperature of the engine oil. Make sure you monitor this instrument as you fly. If the temperature gets too hot, you must shut down the engine or land immediately to avoid engine damage or failure. Setting Engine Options


	The transmission oil pressure gauge shows whether oil is flowing through the transmission. Make sure you monitor this instrument as you fly. If the oil pressure drops, you must land immediately to avoid engine damage or failure. Setting Engine Options


	The transmission oil temperature gauge shows the temperature of the transmission oil. Make sure you monitor this instrument as you fly. If the temperature gets too hot, you must shut down the engine or land immediately to avoid engine damage or failure. Setting Engine Options


	The fuel gauge shows the quantity of fuel. It's calibrated in gallons. Fuel System Setting Fuel Options


	The generator load gauge shows the percentage of maximum DC current being produced by the generator. The maximum load is 70 percent. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The fuel pressure gauge shows the fuel pressure produced by the fuel pump. The normal operating range is 4.0–30 psi. Fuel System Setting Fuel Options


	The torque gauge shows the amount of power that the engine is producing. The normal operating range is 0–85 percent. The takeoff power range is 85–100 percent. Maximum torque is 100 percent for five minutes. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The turbine outlet temperature gauge shows temperature of the gas leaving the engine power turbine. The normal operating range is 100–738 degrees C. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The gas producer gauge shows the speed of the N1 turbine. The normal operating range is 60–105 percent of maximum RPM. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The clock displays the current time. To change the time of day in Flight Simulator, click the digits on the clock or click the Time & Season command on the World menu. Changing the Time on the Instrument Panel Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	The airspeed indicator displays an aircraft's speed relative to the air in which it is moving. It is calibrated in knots. Airspeed Indicator The Pitot Static Instruments


	The dual tachometer–power turbine indicator shows main rotor RPM and the RPM of the engine’s power turbine. The normal operating range for the rotor RPM is 90–107 percent. The normal operating range for the power turbine is 97–100 percent. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The automatic direction finder (ADF) receives signals from non-directional radio beacons (NDBs) or AM radio stations. The needle on the ADF indicator always points toward the selected radio signal. Activating and Tuning the ADF Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)


	The heading knob on the ADF indicator rotates the indicator’s compass card. If you align the compass card with the aircraft’s current heading, the needle directly shows the magnetic bearings to and from the currently tuned NDB. Activating and Tuning the ADF Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)


	The attitude indicator shows the aircraft's pitch and bank attitudes with respect to the ground. Pilots use the attitude indicator, sometimes called the "artificial horizon," when the true horizon isn't visible. Attitude Indicator Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments


	The horizontal situation indicator (HSI) combines the functions of the heading indicator and a VOR/ILS indicator. The outer ring rotates to show the aircraft’s heading. The yellow arrow points to the VOR radial or localizer course selected on the autopilot panel. The magenta indicator is the heading "bug," also set on the autopilot. Horizontal Situation Indicator


	The VOR 2 indicator shows the aircraft's position relative to the VOR station tuned in the NAV 2 radio and the radial selected with the OBS. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	The altimeter is a sensitive barometer that measures air pressure. It's calibrated to display that air pressure as height, usually in feet above mean sea level (MSL). Altimeter The Pitot Static Instruments


	The Kollsman window shows the current altimeter setting—the current atmospheric pressure corrected to sea level. It is calibrated in inches of Hg. Altimeter The Pitot Static Instruments


	The vertical speed indicator (sometimes called the VSI or rate-of-climb indicator) shows how fast an aircraft is climbing or descending. The VSI is usually calibrated in hundreds of feet per minute. Vertical Speed Indicator The Pitot Static Instruments


	The turn needle shows the rate of turn and the quality of a turn—whether the aircraft is slipping, skidding, or in a balanced turn. When the needle aligns with the white marks to the left or right of center, the airplane is making a standard rate turn—three degrees per second. Turn Coordinator Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments


	The fore/aft cyclic position indicator shows how far the cyclic is positioned forward or back. Using the Cyclic Operating Helicopter Flight Controls


	The anti-torque rudder position indicator shows how far the rudder control is positioned to the left or right. Using the Anti-Torque Pedals Operating Helicopter Flight Controls


	The left/right cyclic position indicator shows how far the cyclic is positioned to the left or right. Using the Cyclic Operating Helicopter Flight Controls


	The automatic direction finder (ADF) receives signals from non-directional radio beacons (NDBs) or AM radio stations. The needle on the ADF indicator always points toward the selected radio signal. Activating and Tuning the ADF Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)


	The altimeter is a sensitive barometer that measures air pressure. It's calibrated to display that air pressure as height, usually in feet above mean sea level (MSL). Altimeter The Pitot Static Instruments


	To display altitude accurately, you must turn the altimeter setting knob to set the current barometric pressure (adjusted to sea-level pressure). To set the altimeter in Flight Simulator, press B.  Altimeter The Pitot Static Instruments


	The airspeed indicator displays an aircraft's speed relative to the air in which it is moving. Most modern aircraft have airspeed indicators calibrated in knots or in Mach number. Airspeed Indicator The Pitot Static Instruments


	The attitude indicator shows the aircraft's pitch and bank attitudes with respect to the ground. Pilots use the attitude indicator, sometimes called the "artificial horizon," when the true horizon isn't visible. Attitude Indicator Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments


	The heading indicator accurately and quickly shows changes in aircraft heading. It's sometimes called the "directional gyro" or "DG." Because the heading indicator is driven by a gyro, it provides smooth, precise indication of heading or turns. Heading Indicator Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments


	The communications radio (COM) receives ATIS broadcasts from airports with operating control towers. It receives frequencies in the range 118.0–135.975 MHz. Tuning the COM Radio ATIS


	The navigation radios receive signals from VOR stations and display information on the two omni-bearing indicators (OBIs) and the two DME indicators. They receive frequencies in the range 108.0–117.95 MHz. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	The NAV 1 radio receives signals from VOR stations and the localizer and glideslope signals from an ILS. It is connected to the number one omni-bearing indicator (OBI) and the number one DME indicator. The NAV 1 radio receives frequencies in the range 108.0–117.95 MHz. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	The NAV 2 radio receives signals from VOR stations. It is connected to the number two omni-bearing indicator (OBI) and the number two DME indicator. The NAV 2 radio receives frequencies in the range 108.0–117.95 MHz. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	The DME indicator shows the distance in nautical miles to the VOR station or ILS transmitter tuned into the number one navigation radio. The indicator can also show your ground speed if you are flying directly to or from a VOR station. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Tuning the NAV Radios


	The automatic direction finder (ADF) receives signals from non-directional radio beacons (NDBs) or AM radio stations. Most NDBs transmit in the frequency range 190–535 kHz. Activating and Tuning the ADF Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)


	The transponder receives signals from air traffic control (ATC) radar and replies with a four-digit identification code, or "squawk," set by the pilot. A computer uses the code to display information about each aircraft on an air traffic controller's radar display. Setting the Transponder


	The outside temperature gauge shows the current temperature of the air outside the aircraft. Pilots use the temperature to calculate true airspeed and density altitude, a critical factor in determining aircraft performance. Moisture and Temperature Creating Temperature Layers


	The carburetor heat control directs hot air from the exhaust system into the carburetor to prevent the formation of carburetor ice or to melt ice that's already formed. To turn carburetor heat on or off, press H. Engines with Carburetors Carburetor Ice


	The zoom indicator and control displays the current magnification factor for the active window. To zoom in, click to the left of the indicator or press PLUS SIGN; to zoom out, click to the right or press MINUS SIGN. Zooming In and Out Looking Out the Window


	The strobe light indicator and control shows whether the strobe lights are on or off. The strobe lights flash at the ends of the wing tips to make your airplane more visible. You should turn them on, day or night, except when flying in clouds or thick haze. To turn the strobe lights on or off, click the indicator or press O.


	The lights/landing light indicator shows whether the aircraft lights are on or off. The landing lights illuminate the runway directly ahead of the aircraft during takeoff and landing. To turn the aircraft lights on or off, click the indicator or press L; to turn the landing light on or off, press CTRL+L. Making Your Flights More Realistic


	The autopilot has several functions. It can hold the wings level, maintain altitude, hold a specified heading, track navigation signals from a VOR or ILS, or maintain the current aircraft pitch and bank attitude. Using the Autopilot


	The landing gear indicator and control shows whether the landing gear are extended or retracted. Green lights show that the gear is down; red lights indicate that the gear is up. To extend or retract the landing gear, make sure your airspeed is within the landing gear operating speed range, and then click the indicator or press G. Aircraft Handbooks: Introduction


	The flap indicator and control shows the position of the flaps, the hinged panels on the trailing edge of the wing that swing down during takeoff and landing to increase lift and drag. To operate the flaps, click the indicator. To extend the flaps in increments press F7; to retract them in increments press F6. Using the Flaps Aircraft Handbooks: Introduction


	You use the magneto switch to start the engine and select which set of spark plugs is firing. You should operate the engine with the magneto switch set to BOTH. To change the setting, click the indicator or press M + PLUS SIGN or MINUS SIGN to cycle through the settings. Setting Engine Options Ignition Systems


	The clock displays the current time. To change the time of day in Flight Simulator, click the digits on the clock or click the Time & Season command on the World menu. Changing the Time on the Instrument Panel Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	The exhaust gas temperature gauge (EGT) shows whether the air/fuel mixture is in the proper ratio. You adjust this ratio with the mixture control. Leaning the mixture makes the EGT rise; enriching the mixture makes the EGT fall. Piston Engine Controls Setting Engine Options


	The throttle indirectly controls engine power. When it's fully "open," it allows the maximum amount of air into the engine, producing maximum power. When it's "closed," the engine produces minimum power. The manifold pressure gauge shows changes in the throttle setting. To change the throttle setting, drag the control or press F3 to increase power, F2 to decrease power. Piston Engine Controls Setting Engine Options


	The turn coordinator shows the rate of turn and the quality of a turn—whether the aircraft is slipping, skidding, or in a balanced turn. When the wings align with the white marks, the airplane is making a standard rate turn—three degrees per second. Turn Coordinator Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments


	The VOR 1 indicator shows the aircraft's position relative to the VOR station tuned in the NAV 1 radio and the radial selected with the OBS. It can also display your position relative to the localizer and glide slope of an ILS. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	You use the omni-bearing selector (OBS) to set the radial, or course, you want to fly to or from a VOR station. The selected radial is displayed on the omni-bearing indicator (OBI). Selecting a Course in the OBI VOR Navigation


	The VOR 2 indicator shows the aircraft's position relative to the VOR station tuned in the NAV 2 radio and the radial selected with the OBS. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	You use the omni-bearing selector (OBS) to set the radial, or course, you want to fly to or from a VOR station. The selected radial is displayed on the omni-bearing indicator (OBI). Selecting a Course in the OBI VOR Navigation


	The vertical speed indicator (sometimes called the VSI or rate-of-climb indicator) shows how fast an aircraft is climbing or descending. The VSI is usually calibrated in hundreds of feet per minute. Vertical Speed Indicator The Pitot Static Instruments


	The tachometer shows the propeller or engine speed (if the airplane has a fixed-pitch propeller) in revolutions per minute. You can adjust the RPM with the propeller control or the throttle (if the airplane has a fixed-pitch propeller). Piston Engine Controls Setting Engine Options


	The manifold pressure gauge shows the power setting selected with the throttle. It measures the air pressure in the engine induction system. It is the primary power gauge in aircraft equipped with a constant-speed propeller. Piston Engine Controls Setting Engine Options


	The oil temperature gauge shows the temperature of the engine oil. Make sure you monitor this instrument as you fly. If the temperature gets too hot, you must land immediately to avoid engine damage or failure. Piston Engine Controls Setting Engine Options


	The oil pressure gauge shows whether oil is flowing through the engine. Make sure you monitor this instrument as you fly. If the oil pressure drops, you must land immediately to avoid engine damage or failure. Piston Engine Controls Setting Engine Options


	The propeller control sets the RPM of the propeller in an aircraft equipped with a constant-speed prop. Set high RPM for maximum power, lower RPM for cruising flight. Piston Engine Controls Setting Engine Options


	The mixture control adjusts the air/fuel mixture entering the engine. To operate the engine efficiently, you must lean the mixture as you climb into thinner air, and enrich the mixture as you descend. Piston Engine Controls Setting Engine Options


	The outer marker light illuminates when you pass over an outer marker beacon during an ILS approach. The outer marker is often located at the final approach fix, where you intercept the glide slope. Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	The middle marker light illuminates when you pass over the middle marker beacon during an ILS approach. The middle marker is usually located about 3,500 ft (1,067 m) from the end of the runway. Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	The inner marker light illuminates when you pass over the inner marker beacon during an ILS approach. The inner marker is usually located at the point along the approach where you should be at decision height, usually about 200 ft (61 m) above the runway. Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	The left tank fuel gauge shows the quantity of fuel in the left wing tank.  Each wing tank in the Cessna Skylane 182S can hold a total of 46 gallons (174.2 l). Each wing tank in the Cessna Skylane RG can hold a total of 44 gallons (166.5 l). Fuel System Setting Fuel Options


	The right tank fuel gauge shows the quantity of fuel in the right wing tank. Each wing tank in the Cessna Skylane 182S can hold a total of 46 gallons (174.2 l). Each wing tank in the Cessna Skylane RG can hold a total of 44 gallons (166.5 l). Fuel System Setting Fuel Options


	The magnetic compass shows the aircraft's heading relative to the earth's magnetic field. Pilots usually use the compass to set the heading indicator, which gives a more stable, easier-to-read indication of the aircraft's heading. Heading Indicator Navigation: Introduction


	If you are flying "backward" on the localizer component of an ILS, click the BC indicator to ensure that you don't have reversed needle sensing. Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	The heading adjust knob compensates for precession of gyro in the heading indicator and aligns the heading indicator with the magnetic compass. To align the heading indicator with the compass in Flight Simulator, press D. Heading Indicator Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments


	The trim indicator shows the position of the elevator trim. You use trim to relieve control pressure on the stick or yoke as the airplane changes speed. To add nose-down trim, press KEYPAD 7; to add nose-up trim, press KEYPAD 1. Using the Trim Control Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The aileron control position indicator shows how far the ailerons are deflected to the left or right. Using the Ailerons Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The elevator control position indicator shows how far the elevator is deflected up or down. Using the Elevator Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The rudder control position indicator shows how far the rudder is deflected left or right. Using the Rudder Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The carburetor heat control turns carburetor heat on and off. You should use carburetor heat when flying at low power settings when the outside air temperature is between -15°C and +5°C (5–59°F). Piston Engine Controls Setting Engine Options


	The vacuum gauge shows whether the vacuum pump is operating correctly. The normal operating range is 4.5–5.5 in Hg. If the vacuum pump fails, the gyros in the attitude indicator and heading indicator slowly spin down, and those instruments will no longer display accurate information. Attitude Indicator Heading Indicator Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments


	The ammeter shows the amount of current in amps flowing from the alternator to the battery or from the battery to the electrical system. When the engine and alternator are operating properly, the ammeter shows the charging rate applied to the battery. Electrical Systems


	The fuel flow gauge shows the rate at which fuel is delivered to the engine in gallons per hour. The normal operating range is 0–15 gph. You control fuel flow by setting the throttle and mixture controls. Piston Engine Controls


	The cylinder head temperature gauge shows the temperature inside the number 4 cylinder. When used with the EGT, the CHT gauge indicates whether the air/fuel mixture is correct and whether the engine is operating correctly. The normal operating range for the CHT is 200–500 degrees F. Piston Engines: Basic Principles


	The true airspeed calibration ring corrects for nonstandard temperature and pressure. When you set this ring properly, the numbers on the ring show your current true airspeed. Airspeed Indicator


	The Kollsman window displays the current altimeter setting in inches of Hg. Altimeter The Pitot Static Instruments


	The pitot heat switch turns the heating element in the pitot tube on and off. You should turn on pitot heat whenever you are flying in clouds or precipitation and the temperature is near freezing. If the pitot tub is blocked by ice, the airspeed indicator will not display accurate readings. The Pitot Static Instruments


	The suction gauge shows whether the vacuum pump is operating correctly. The normal operating range is 4.5–5.5 in Hg. If the vacuum pump fails, the gyros in the attitude indicator and heading indicator slowly spin down, and those instruments will no longer display accurate information. Attitude Indicator Heading Indicator Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments


	The heading bug adjustment knob moves the orange heading “bug” on the face of the heading indicator. You can use this knob to set the heading you want the autopilot to hold, or as a reminder of the heading you want to fly. Using the Autopilot Heading Indicator


	The navigation lights switch turns the navigation and instrument panel lights on and off.


	The pitot heat switch turns the heating element in the pitot tube on and off. You should turn on pitot heat whenever you are flying in clouds or precipitation and the temperature is near freezing. If the pitot tub is blocked by ice, the airspeed indicator will not display accurate readings. The Pitot Static Instruments


	The automatic direction finder (ADF) receives signals from non-directional radio beacons (NDBs) or AM radio stations. The needle on the ADF indicator always points toward the selected radio signal. Activating and Tuning the ADF Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)


	The automatic direction finder (ADF) setting knob rotates the compass card on the ADF indicator. Pilots use this knob to set the airplane's current heading at the top of the indicator. Activating and Tuning the ADF Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)


	The altimeter is a sensitive barometer that measures air pressure. It's calibrated to display that air pressure as height, usually in feet above mean sea level (MSL). Altimeter The Pitot Static Instruments


	To display altitude accurately, you must turn the altimeter setting knob to set the current barometric pressure (adjusted to sea-level pressure). To set the altimeter in Flight Simulator, press B.  Altimeter The Pitot Static Instruments


	The airspeed indicator displays an aircraft's speed relative to the air in which it is moving. Most modern aircraft have airspeed indicators calibrated in knots or in Mach number. Airspeed Indicator The Pitot Static Instruments


	The attitude indicator shows the aircraft's pitch and bank attitudes with respect to the ground. Pilots use the attitude indicator, sometimes called the "artificial horizon," when the true horizon isn't visible. Attitude Indicator Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments


	The turn needle, like a turn coordinator, shows the rate of turn and the quality of a turn—whether the aircraft is slipping, skidding, or in a balanced turn. When the needle aligns with the white marks, the airplane is making a standard-rate turn—two degrees per second. Turn Coordinator Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments


	The slip/skid indicator (the "ball") works like the inclinometer in the turn coordinator. It shows whether the airplane is in coordinated flight. It's especially useful during turns. Turn Coordinator Turns


	The engine controls include the throttle, propeller control, and mixture control. Piston Engine Controls Setting Engine Options


	The throttle indirectly controls engine power. When it's fully "open," it allows the maximum amount of air into the engine, producing maximum power. When it's "closed," the engine produces minimum power. The manifold pressure gauge shows changes in the throttle setting. To change the throttle setting, either drag the control or hold down F3 to increase power, F2 to decrease power. Piston Engine Controls Setting Engine Options


	The propeller control sets the RPM of the propeller. Set high RPM for maximum power, lower RPM for cruising flight. Piston Engine Controls Setting Engine Options


	The mixture control adjusts the air/fuel mixture entering the engine. To operate the engine efficiently, you must lean the mixture as you climb into thinner air, and enrich the mixture as you descend. Piston Engine Controls Setting Engine Options


	The clock displays the current time. To change the time of day in Flight Simulator either click the digits on the clock or click the Time & Season command on the World menu. Changing the Time on the Instrument Panel Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	The simulation rate indicator shows the current simulation speed. Normally this is set to 1 to run the simulation in real time. You can click the indicator to speed up or slow down the simulation. Changing Simulation Rate


	The magnetic compass shows the aircraft's heading relative to the earth's magnetic field. Pilots usually use the compass to set the heading indicator, which gives a more stable, easier-to-read indication of the aircraft's heading. Heading Indicator Navigation: Introduction


	The avionics master switch displays and hides the radio stack.


	The instrument panel lights switch turns the instrument and navigation lights on and off. To turn these lights on and off with the keyboard, press L.


	The strobe light indicator and control shows whether the strobe lights are on or off. The strobe lights flash at the end of the wing tips to make your airplane more visible. You should turn them on, day or night, except when flying in clouds or thick haze. To turn the strobe lights on or off, click the indicator or press O.


	The radio master switch turns power to the radios and other avionics on and off.


	The smoke system switch turns the airshow smoke system on and off. To turn smoke on or off with the keyboard, press I.


	The acro tank gauge shows the amount of fuel in the tank used for aerobatic flight. Fuel System Setting Fuel Options


	The main tank fuel gauge shows the quantity of fuel in the main tank. Fuel System Setting Fuel Options


	The fuel flow gauge shows the rate of fuel consumption in gallons per hour (GPH).


	The exhaust gas temperature gauge (EGT) shows whether the air/fuel mixture is in the proper ratio. You adjust this ratio with the mixture control. Leaning the mixture makes the EGT rise; enriching the mixture makes the EGT fall. Piston Engine Controls Setting Engine Options


	The ammeter shows the rate at which the alternator is charging the battery (right-needle deflection), or the rate at which the battery is being discharged (left-needle deflection). Electrical System


	You use the starter/magneto switch to start the engine and select which set of spark plugs is firing. You should operate the engine with the magneto switch set to BOTH. To change the setting, click the indicator or press M + PLUS SIGN or MINUS SIGN to cycle through the settings. Setting Engine Options Ignition Systems


	The heading indicator accurately and quickly shows changes in aircraft heading. It's sometimes called the "directional gyro" or "DG." Because the heading indicator is driven by a gyro, it provides smooth, precise indication of heading or turns. Heading Indicator Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments


	The heading set knob compensates for precession of gyro in the heading indicator and aligns the heading indicator with the magnetic compass. To align the heading indicator with the compass in Flight Simulator, press D. Heading Indicator Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments


	The G meter shows the current positive and negative G load on the aircraft. The Extra 300S is designed to withstand +10/10Gs.


	The radio stack includes a communications radio, navigation receivers, and a transponder. Tuning the COM Radio Tuning the NAV Radios Setting the Transponder


	The communications radio (COM) receives ATIS broadcasts from airports with operating control towers. It receives frequencies in the range 118.0–135.975 MHz. Tuning the COM Radio ATIS


	The NAV radio receives signals from VOR stations and the localizer and glideslope signals from an ILS. It is connected to the number one omni-bearing indicator (OBI) and the number one DME indicator. The NAV 1 radio receives frequencies in the range 108.0–117.95 MHz. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	The transponder receives signals from air traffic control (ATC) radar and replies with a four-digit identification code, or "squawk," set by the pilot. A computer uses the code to display information about each aircraft on an air traffic controller's radar display. Setting the Transponder


	The automatic direction finder (ADF) receives signals from non-directional radio beacons (NDBs) or AM radio stations. Most NDBs transmit in the frequency range 190–535 kHz. Activating and Tuning the ADF Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)


	The vertical speed indicator (sometimes called the VSI or rate-of-climb indicator) shows how fast an aircraft is climbing or descending. The VSI is usually calibrated in hundreds of feet per minute. Vertical Speed Indicator The Pitot Static Instruments


	The tachometer shows the propeller or engine speed (if the airplane has a fixed-pitch propeller) in revolutions per minute. You can adjust the RPM with the propeller control or the throttle (if the airplane has a fixed-pitch propeller). Piston Engine Controls Setting Engine Options


	The manifold pressure gauge shows the power setting selected with the throttle. It measures the air pressure in the engine induction system. It is the primary power gauge in aircraft equipped with a constant-speed propeller. Piston Engine Controls Setting Engine Options


	The oil temperature gauge shows the temperature of the engine oil. Make sure you monitor this instrument as you fly. If the temperature gets too hot, you must land immediately to avoid engine damage or failure. Piston Engine Controls Setting Engine Options


	The oil pressure gauge shows whether oil is flowing through the engine. Make sure you monitor this instrument as you fly. If the oil pressure drops, you must land immediately to avoid engine damage or failure. Piston Engine Controls Setting Engine Options


	The G meter reset button resets the G meter to zero.


	The VOR 1 indicator shows the aircraft's position relative to the VOR station tuned in the NAV 1 radio and the radial selected with the OBS. It can also display your position relative to the localizer and glide slope of an ILS. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	You use the omni-bearing selector (OBS) to set the radial, or course, you want to fly to or from a VOR station. The selected radial is displayed in the omni-bearing indicator (OBI). Selecting a Course in the OBI VOR Navigation


	The Aresti diagrams show the sequence of aerobatic maneuvers for an aerobatic competition or airshow routine. To cycle through the available aerobatic programs, press TAB. Aresti Notation: Aerobatic Hieroglyphs


	The DME indicator shows the distance in nautical miles to the VOR station or ILS transmitter tuned into the NAV 1 radio. The indicator can also show your ground speed if you are flying directly toward or away from a VOR station. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Tuning the NAV Radios


	The aileron control position indicator shows how far the ailerons are deflected to the left or right. Using the Ailerons Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The elevator control position indicator shows how far the elevator is deflected up or down. Using the Elevator Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The rudder control position indicator shows how far the rudder is deflected left or right. Using the Rudder Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The automatic direction finder (ADF) receives signals from non-directional radio beacons (NDBs) or AM radio stations. The needle on the ADF indicator always points toward the selected radio signal. Activating and Tuning the ADF Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)


	The altimeter displays height in feet above mean sea level (MSL). In the Learjet 45, the altimeter displays altitude on a vertical scale to the right of the attitude indicator. Altimeter The Pitot Static Instruments


	To display altitude accurately, you must turn the altimeter setting knob to set the current barometric pressure (adjusted to sea-level pressure). To set the altimeter in Flight Simulator, press B.  Altimeter The Pitot Static Instruments


	The airspeed indicator displays an aircraft's speed relative to the air in which it is moving. In the Learjet 45, the airspeed indicator displays airspeed on a vertical scale to the left of the attitude indicator. Airspeed Indicator The Pitot Static Instruments


	The angle of attack indicator helps you fly at the proper attitude and airspeed, especially during approach to landing. The display shows a relative angle of attack, with 1.0 representing the critical angle of attack—the point at which a stall occurs. The caution area is in the range indicated by the highlighted area between .8 and 1.0. Stalls


	The attitude indicator shows the aircraft's pitch and bank attitudes with respect to the ground. Pilots use the attitude indicator, sometimes called the "artificial horizon," when the true horizon isn't visible. Attitude Indicator Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments


	The clock displays the current time. To change the time of day in Flight Simulator, click the digits on the clock or click the Time & Season command on the World menu. Changing the Time on the Instrument Panel Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	The simulation rate indicator shows the current simulation speed. Normally this is set to 1 to run the simulation in real time. You can click the indicator to speed up or slow down the simulation. Changing Simulation Rate


	The magnetic compass shows the aircraft's heading relative to the earth's magnetic field. Pilots usually use the compass to set the heading indicator, which gives a more stable, easier-to-read indication of the aircraft's heading. Heading Indicator Navigation: Introduction


	The turbine speed gauges show the RPM of the core turbines in the turbofan engines. The number represents the percentage of maximum turbine speed. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The turbine inlet temperature gauges show the engines' core temperature. They are calibrated in hundreds of degrees Celsius. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The fan speed gauges show the RPM of the low-pressure fan assembly at the front of the turbofan engines. The numbers represent the fan speed as a percentage of maximum RPM. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The oil temperature gauge shows the temperature of the engine oil. Make sure you monitor this instrument as you fly. If the temperature gets too hot, you must shut down the engine or land immediately to avoid engine damage or failure. Setting Engine Options


	The oil pressure gauge shows whether oil is flowing through the engine. Make sure you monitor this instrument as you fly. If the oil pressure drops, you must land immediately to avoid engine damage or failure. Setting Engine Options


	The fuel flow gauges show the rate of fuel consumption. They are calibrated in hundreds of pounds per hour. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The fuel gauge shows the quantity of fuel. It's calibrated in hundreds of pounds. Fuel System Setting Fuel Options


	The thrust levers control engine power, which is read most directly from the N1 gauges. To increase thrust, hold down F3; to decrease thrust, hold down F2. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The engine 1 thrust lever controls power to the left engine. To increase thrust, press F3; to decrease thrust, press F2.  Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The engine 2 thrust lever controls power to the right engine. To increase thrust, press F3; to decrease thrust, press F2.  Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The engine start levers start the engines and control the generators. To activate the starters, press J, and then press PLUS SIGN or MINUS SIGN to cycle between OFF, STR, and GEN. To shut down the engines, press CTRL+SHIFT+F1. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The engine 1 start lever starts the left engine and controls its generator. To activate the starter, press J, and then press PLUS SIGN or MINUS SIGN to cycle between OFF, STR, and GEN. To shut down the engines, press CTRL+SHIFT+F1. Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The engine 1 generator controls the generator on the left engine. To activate the starters, press J, and then press PLUS SIGN or MINUS SIGN to cycle between OFF, STR, and GEN. To shut down the engines, press CTRL+SHIFT+F1.  Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The engine 2 start lever starts the right engine and its the generator. To activate the starter, press J, and then press PLUS SIGN or MINUS SIGN to cycle between OFF, STR, and GEN. To shut down the engines, press CTRL+SHIFT+F1.  Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The engine 2 generator controls the generator on the right engine. To activate the starters, press J, and then press PLUS SIGN or MINUS SIGN to cycle between OFF, STR, and GEN. To shut down the engines, press CTRL+SHIFT+F1.  Turbine Engines: Principles of Operation Turbine Engine Controls


	The heading indicator accurately and quickly shows changes in aircraft heading. In the Learjet 45, the heading indicator is part of the electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI). Heading Indicator Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments


	The heading bug adjustment knob moves the orange heading “bug” on the face of the heading indicator. You can use this knob to set the heading you want the autopilot to hold, or as a reminder of the heading you want to fly. Using the Autopilot Heading Indicator


	The zoom indicator and control displays the current magnification factor for the active window. To zoom in, click to the left of the indicator or press PLUS SIGN; to zoom out, click to the right or press MINUS SIGN. Zooming In and Out Looking Out the Window


	The autopilot indicator shows which function is selected when the autopilot is on. The autopilot can hold the wings level, maintain altitude, hold a specified heading, track navigation signals from a VOR or ILS, or maintain the current aircraft pitch and bank attitude. Using the Autopilot


	The autopilot altitude hold button turns the altitude hold function on and off. Click this indicator or press CTRL+Z maintain the current altitude or to disengage the altitude hold function. Using the Autopilot


	The autopilot heading hold button turns the heading hold function on and off. Click this indicator or press CTRL+H maintain the current aircraft heading or to disengage the heading hold function. Using the Autopilot


	The autopilot navigation hold button turns the navigation hold function on and off. In this mode, the autopilot tracks the radial selected in the number 1 VOR indicator. Using the Autopilot VOR Navigation


	The autopilot localizer/glide slope hold button turns the ILS approach function on and off. In this mode, the autopilot tracks the localizer and glide slope of the ILS tuned into the number 1 navigation radio. Using the Autopilot Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	The autopilot back course hold function allows you to fly the back course of a localizer approach without reverse needle sensing. Using the Autopilot Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	The autopilot master switch turns the autopilot on and off. You can click the indicator or press Z to turn the autopilot on or off. Using the Autopilot


	The strobe light indicator and control shows whether the strobe lights are on or off. The strobe lights flash at the end of the wing tips to make your airplane more visible. You should turn them on, day or night, except when flying in clouds or thick haze. To turn the strobe lights on or off, click the indicator or press O.


	The spoiler indicator/control shows whether the spoilers on the top of the wings are deployed or retracted. The spoilers decrease the lift generated by the wings and act as speed brakes. To deploy or retract the spoilers, click the indicator or press SLASH (/). Operating Airplane Control Surfaces Learjet 45: Introduction


	The trim indicator shows the position of the elevator trim. You use this control to relieve control pressure on the stick or yoke as the airplane changes speed. To add nose-down trim, press KEYPAD 7; to add nose-up trim, press KEYPAD 1. Using the Trim Control Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The landing gear indicator and control shows whether the landing gear are extended or retracted. Green lights show that the gear is down; red lights indicate that the gear is up. To extend or retract the landing gear, make sure your airspeed is within the landing gear operating speed range, and then click the indicator or press G. Aircraft Handbooks: Introduction


	The flap indicator and control shows the position of the flaps, the hinged panels on the trailing edge of the wing that swing down during takeoff and landing to increase lift and drag. To operate the flaps, click the indicator or press F7 to extend the flaps in increments or F6 to retract them in increments. Using the Flaps Aircraft Handbooks: Introduction


	The communications radio (COM) receives ATIS broadcasts from airports with operating control towers. It receives frequencies in the range 118.0–135.975 MHz. Tuning the COM Radio ATIS


	The NAV 1 radio receives signals from VOR stations and the localizer and glideslope signals from an ILS. It is connected to the number one omni-bearing indicator (OBI) and the number one DME indicator. The NAV 1 radio receives frequencies in the range 108.0–117.95 MHz. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	The NAV 2 radio receives signals from VOR stations. It is connected to the number two omni-bearing indicator (OBI) and the number two DME indicator. The NAV 2 radio receives frequencies in the range 108.0–117.95 MHz. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	The transponder receives signals from air traffic control (ATC) radar and replies with a four-digit identification code, or "squawk," set by the pilot. A computer uses the code to display information about each aircraft on an air traffic controller's radar display. Setting the Transponder


	The automatic direction finder (ADF) receives signals from non-directional radio beacons (NDBs) or AM radio stations. Most NDBs transmit in the frequency range 190–535 kHz. Activating and Tuning the ADF Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)


	The aileron control position indicator shows how far the ailerons are deflected to the left or right. Using the Ailerons Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The elevator control position indicator shows how far the elevator is deflected up or down. Using the Elevator Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The rudder control position indicator shows how far the rudder is deflected left or right. Using the Rudder Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The outside temperature gauge shows the current temperature of the air outside the aircraft. Pilots need to know the temperature to calculate true airspeed and density altitude, a critical factor in determining aircraft performance. Moisture and Temperature Creating Temperature Layers


	The skid/slip indicator shows whether the airplane is in coordinated flight. It's particularly useful during turns. It works like the inclinometer (the "ball") in the turn coordinator found on smaller aircraft. Turn Coordinator Turns


	The VOR 1 indicator shows the aircraft's position relative to the VOR station tuned in the NAV 1 radio and the radial selected with the OBS. It can also display your position relative to the localizer and glide slope of an ILS. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	You use the omni-bearing selector (OBS) to set the radial, or course, you want to fly to or from a VOR station. The selected radial is displayed in the omni-bearing indicator (OBI). Selecting a Course in the OBI VOR Navigation


	The VOR 2 indicator shows the aircraft's position relative to the VOR station tuned in the NAV 2 radio and the radial selected with the OBS. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	You use the omni-bearing selector (OBS) to set the radial, or course, you want to fly to or from a VOR station. The selected radial is displayed in the omni-bearing indicator (OBI). Selecting a Course in the OBI VOR Navigation


	The vertical speed indicator (sometimes called the VSI or rate-of-climb indicator) shows how fast an aircraft is climbing or descending. The VSI is usually calibrated in hundreds of feet per minute. Vertical Speed Indicator The Pitot Static Instruments


	The lights/landing light indicator shows whether the aircraft position (navigation) lights are on or off. The landing lights illuminate the runway directly ahead of the aircraft during takeoff and landing. To turn the aircraft lights on or off, click the indicator or press L; to turn the landing light on or off, press CTRL+L. Making Your Flights More Realistic


	The DME 1 indicator shows the distance in nautical miles to the VOR station or ILS transmitter tuned into the NAV 1 radio. The indicator can also show your ground speed if you are flying directly toward or away from a VOR station. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Tuning the NAV Radios


	The DME 2 indicator shows the distance in nautical miles to the VOR station tuned into the NAV 2 radio. The indicator can also show your ground speed if you are flying directly toward or away from a VOR station. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Tuning the NAV Radios


	The horizontal situation indicator (HSI) combines the functions of the heading indicator and a VOR/ILS indicator. The outer ring rotates to show the aircraft’s heading. The yellow arrow points to the VOR radial or localizer course selected autopilot panel. The magenta indicator is the heading "bug," also set on the autopilot. Horizontal Situation Indicator


	The Mach number select window shows the airspeed that you want the autothrottle system to maintain. You normally use a Mach number reference at high altitude. Using the Autopilot Airspeed Indicator


	The panel lights switch turns on lights to illuminate the instrument panel. To turn the aircraft lights on or off, click the indicator or press L; to turn the landing light on or off, press CTRL+L. Making Your Flights More Realistic


	The landing light switch turns the landing light on and off. To turn the landing light on or off, press CTRL+L. To turn the aircraft lights on or off, click the indicator or press L. Making Your Flights More Realistic


	No Help is available for this item.


	The outer marker light illuminates when you pass over an outer marker beacon during an ILS approach. The outer marker is often located at the final approach fix, where you intercept the glide slope. Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	The middle marker light illuminates when you pass over the middle marker beacon during an ILS approach. The middle marker is usually located about 3,500 ft (1,067 m) from the end of the runway. Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	The inner marker light illuminates when you pass over the inner marker beacon during an ILS approach. The inner marker is usually located at the point along the approach where you should be at decision height, usually about 200 ft (61 m) above the runway. Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	The back course indicator illuminates when you are flying "backward" on the localizer component of an ILS. Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	The navigation radios receive signals from VOR stations and display information on the two omni-bearing indicators (OBIs) and the two DME indicators. They receive frequencies in the range 108.0–117.95 MHz. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	The glide slope indicator shows your position relative to the electronic glide path transmitted by an ILS system. When the arrow is in the center, you are on the proper glidepath. Instrument Landing System (ILS)


	The VOR display switch changes the source for navigation signals displayed on the HSI between the NAV 1 and NAV 2 receivers. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	The ADF display switch turns the ADF needle display on the HSI on and off. Activating and Tuning the ADF Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)


	The SPD button activates the indicated airspeed hold function on the autopilot. To select the specific IAS you want the autopilot to maintain, click the digits in the MACH/IAS window. Using the Autopilot


	The MACH button activates the Mach number hold function on the autopilot. To select the specific Mach number you want the autopilot to maintain, click the digits in the MACH/IAS window. Using the Autopilot


	The MACH indicator displays the current aircraft's true airspeed as related to the speed of sound. Types of Airspeed


	The annunciator panel gives a visual indication of various system operating conditions. By depressing the annunciator panel test button, panel indicators will cycle through a diagnostics routine and light up to confirm operational behavior. Depressing the test button again will reset the panel.


	The annunciator panel gives a visual indication of various system operating conditions. By depressing the annunciator panel test button, panel indicators will cycle through a diagnostics routine and light up to confirm operational behavior. Depressing the test button again will reset the panel.


	The NAV 1 radio receives signals from VOR stations and the localizer and glideslope signals from an ILS. It is connected to the number one omni-bearing indicator (OBI) and the number one DME indicator. The NAV 1 radio receives frequencies in the range 108.0–117.95 MHz. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	The communications radio (COM) receives ATIS broadcasts from airports with operating control towers. It receives frequencies in the range 118.0–135.975 MHz. Tuning the COM Radio ATIS


	The NAV 2 radio receives signals from VOR stations. It is connected to the number two omni-bearing indicator (OBI) and the number two DME indicator. The NAV 2 radio receives frequencies in the range 108.0–117.95 MHz. Tuning the NAV Radios VOR Navigation


	The communications radio (COM) receives ATIS broadcasts from airports with operating control towers. It receives frequencies in the range 118.0–135.975 MHz. The COM 2 radio is not available in Flight Simulator. Tuning the COM Radio ATIS


	The DME indicator shows the distance in nautical miles to the VOR station or ILS transmitter tuned into the number one navigation radio. The indicator can also show your ground speed if you are flying directly to or from a VOR station. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Tuning the NAV Radios


	This switch changes the DME indicator to your ground speed in knots if you are flying directly to or from a VOR station. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Tuning the NAV Radios


	This switch changes the DME indicator to show the distance in nautical miles to the VOR station or ILS transmitter tuned into the number one navigation radio. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Tuning the NAV Radios


	This switch changes the DME indicator to time (in minutes) required to reach the currently selected VOR station at the current ground speed. The time is valid only if you are flying directly to or from a VOR station. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Tuning the NAV Radios


	This switch selects which NAV radio is sending information to the DME indicator. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Tuning the NAV Radios


	The automatic direction finder (ADF) receives signals from non-directional radio beacons (NDBs) or AM radio stations. Most NDBs transmit in the frequency range 190–535 kHz. Activating and Tuning the ADF Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)


	The transponder receives signals from air traffic control (ATC) radar and replies with a four-digit identification code, or "squawk," set by the pilot. A computer uses the code to display information about each aircraft on an air traffic controller's radar display. Setting the Transponder


	This switch displays or hides the Bendix/King radio stack in a separate window. Tuning the COM Radio Tuning the NAV Radios Activating and Tuning the ADF Setting the Transponder


	The altimeter is a sensitive barometer that measures air pressure. It's calibrated to display that air pressure as height, usually in feet above mean sea level (MSL). Altimeter The Pitot Static Instruments


	To display altitude accurately, you must turn the altimeter setting knob to set the current barometric pressure (adjusted to sea-level pressure). To set the altimeter in Flight Simulator, press B. Altimeter The Pitot Static Instruments


	The airspeed indicator displays an aircraft's speed relative to the air in which it is moving. Most aircraft have airspeed indicators calibrated in knots. The airspeed indicator in the glider is calibrated in mph. Airspeed Indicator The Pitot Static Instruments


	The magnetic compass shows the aircraft's heading relative to the earth's magnetic north pole. Navigation: Introduction


	The spoilers control deploys and retracts spoilers on the wings. Spoilers reduce the amount of lift produced by the wings. Sailplane pilots use the spoilers to adjust the airplane's descent angle during landing. To extend or retract the spoilers, press /.


	The communications radio (COM) receives ATIS broadcasts from airports with operating control towers. It receives frequencies in the range 118.0–135.975 MHz. Tuning the COM Radio ATIS


	The vertical speed indicator (sometimes called the VSI or rate-of-climb indicator) shows how fast an aircraft is climbing or descending. The VSI is usually calibrated in hundreds of feet per minute. Vertical Speed Indicator The Pitot Static Instruments


	The master switch turns on electrical power from the battery to provide power for the communications radio.


	The aileron control position indicator shows how far the ailerons are deflected to the left or right. Using the Ailerons Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The elevator control position indicator shows how far the elevator is deflected up or down. Using the Elevator Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The rudder control position indicator shows how far the rudder is deflected left or right. Using the Rudder Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The altimeter is a sensitive barometer that measures air pressure. It's calibrated to display that air pressure as height, usually in feet above mean sea level (MSL). Altimeter The Pitot Static Instruments


	The airspeed indicator displays an aircraft's speed relative to the air in which it is moving. Most aircraft have airspeed indicators calibrated in knots. Airspeed Indicator The Pitot Static Instruments


	The magnetic compass shows the aircraft's heading relative to the earth's magnetic north pole. Navigation: Introduction


	The inclinometer (also called "the ball") shows whether a turn is balanced or "coordinated." In modern aircraft the inclinometer is part of the turn coordinator or turn indicator. Turn Coordinator


	The fuel gauge shows how much fuel remains in the fuel tank. On the Sopwith Camel, the gauge is marked "Air" because the gauge actually measures air pressure in the tank, an indirect indication of fuel remaining. Fuel Systems Setting Fuel Options


	The oil pressure gauge shows whether oil is flowing through the engine. Make sure you monitor this instrument as you fly. If the oil pressure drops, you must land immediately to avoid engine damage or failure. Piston Engine Controls Setting Engine Options


	You use the magneto switch to start the engine and select which set of spark plugs is firing. You should operate the engine with the magneto switch set to BOTH. To change the setting, click the indicator or press M + PLUS SIGN or MINUS SIGN to cycle through the settings. Setting Engine Options Ignition Systems


	The tachometer shows the engine speed in revolutions per minute. You can adjust the RPM with the throttle. Piston Engine Controls


	The aileron control position indicator shows how far the ailerons are deflected to the left or right. Using the Ailerons Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The elevator control position indicator shows how far the elevator is deflected up or down. Using the Elevator Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	The rudder control position indicator shows how far the rudder is deflected left or right. Using the Rudder Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	Use the tabs on this dialog box to control the appearance of your aircraft, the map view and scenery and to set hardware acceleration options.


	Click these tabs to see more options.


	This tab includes options that control the way your aircraft looks.


	This tab includes options that control the appearance of scenery and the sky.


	This tab includes options that control the appearance of the map in map view.


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	These options control the appearance of the airplanes. Displaying less detail may improve the performance of your computer.


	To see a basic, less detailed view of your airplane from Tower View or Spot Plane View, click Simple Aircraft Model.


	To see a more detailed view of the airplane with textures and depth from Tower View or Spot Plane View, click Aircraft Texture.


	To see shadows of planes on the ground, click See Aircraft Shadows.


	To see the wings, tail, and other parts of your airplane when you look to the left, right, or rear from the cockpit, click See Own Aircraft From Cockpit.


	To see your airplane’s propeller from Tower View or Spot Plane View, click See Propeller.


	To make the landing light available, click Landing Lights Available. When this option is on you can turn the landing light on or off by pressing CTRL+L.


	Use these options to control the orientation and level of detail displayed in the Map View window.


	To display the map with north at the top when you're flying at high altitudes, choose North At High Altitude. To display the map aligned with your aircraft's heading, choose Aircraft Oriented.


	To see the ground texture and depth in Map View, click Map Ground Texture.


	Use these options to control the appearance of scenery in Flight Simulator.


	To occasionally see wispy clouds, click Wispy Cloud Effects.


	To see scenery shadows on the ground, click Ground Scenery Shadows.


	To see a more three-dimensional view of the ground, click Textured Ground.


	To see a more three-dimensional view of buildings, click Textured Buildings.


	To see a more three-dimensional view of clouds and air traffic, click Textured Sky.


	To see variations in the thickness of clouds, click Cloud Thickness Effects.


	To see variations in the horizon, click Gradient Horizon.


	To transition smoothly as you change views, click Smooth Transition View.


	To make ground textures blend more realistically, click Image Smoothing.


	To see a more three-dimensional view of water, click Textured Water.


	This dialog box shows your flight path before the crash.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	To close the dialog box, click OK.


	This dialog box allows you to analyze your landing skills.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	This dialog box allows you to analyze your landing skills.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


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	To close the dialog, click OK


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	This dialog box allows you to analyze a maneuver, such as a turn or a stall.


	This dialog box allows you to analyze a maneuver, such as a turn or a stall.


	To enlarge the graph, click Scale.


	To close the dialog box, click OK.


	To choose an adventure, click Adventures.


	To choose a quick, exciting flight, click Adventures.


	To choose a flight that will challenge your flying skills, click Challenge.


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	To close Flight Simulator, click OK.


	To return to Flight Simulator, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to monitor a landing, a specific maneuver, or plot and follow your course.


	To monitor a maneuver such as a turn or a stall, click Maneuver Analysis.


	To record your aircraft’s course at preset intervals, click Course Tracking.


	To monitor your landing starting 100 feet above the runway, click Landing Analysis.


	To turn off flight analysis graphs, click Flight Analysis Off.


	To see your previous flight’s path, click Display Course.


	To remove a recorded course, click Clear Recorded Course and then click OK.


	To display 5 line segments on your course, click Short. To display 15 line segments on your course, click Medium. To display 30 line segments on your course, click Long.


	To see detail during precision maneuvers, click Fine. To see your course over a long distance, click Coarse.


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


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	Use this dialog box to replay the last 50 seconds of your flight.


	Use this dialog box to replay the last 50 seconds of your flight.


	To reduce the length of the replay, click the bottom spin control. To increase the length of the replay, click the top spin control.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	To slow down the replay rate, click the bottom spin control. To speed up the replay, click the top spin control.


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	To restart the replay automatically each time it finishes, click Repeat Replay Continuously.


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to add logbooks, to remove logbooks you created, and add, change or remove entries in a logbook.


	Click the logbook you that you want to work with.


	Click this button to create a new logbook.


	Click this button to delete the selected logbook and all entries stored in that logbook.


	Displays the current entries in the selected logbook.


	Displays the total hours for daytime, nighttime, and instrument flights, and a summary of all flying hours for the selected logbook.


	To create a new entry about a flight in the selected logbook, click Add Entry.


	To change information about the selected entry in the current logbook, click Edit Entry.


	To delete the selected entry in the current logbook, click Remove Entry.


	To close the dialog box, click Close.


	Use this dialog box to add or edit entries in the current logbook. Pilot Logbooks (FAR 61.51)


	Type the date of flight using the format M-D-Y; for example, "11-7-96."


	To select the airplane for this logbook entry, click the small arrow and choose from the list.


	Type a comment about your flight such as the route, weather, and instrument approaches flown.


	Type the time of the flight in hours and decimal fractions (for example, "2.5" equals 2 hours, 30 minutes). Enter the time in the appropriate categories (day, night, and instrument). Pilot Logbooks (FAR 61.51)


	Type the time of the flight during daylight hours in hours and decimal fractions (for example, "2.5" equals 2 hours, 30 minutes). Pilot Logbooks (FAR 61.51)


	Type the time of the flight during nighttime hours in hours and decimal fractions (for example, "2.5" equals 2 hours, 30 minutes). Pilot Logbooks (FAR 61.51)


	Type the time of the flight during which you flew solely by reference to instruments (in hours in hours and decimal fractions; for example, "2.5" equals 2 hours, 30 minutes). Pilot Logbooks (FAR 61.51)


	Displays the total time of the flight in hours and decimal fractions.


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Type a name for your logbook.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Allows you to set the volume of individual sound areas in Flight Simulator.


	Use the slider to adjust the sound volume for aircraft cockpit sounds such as landing gear, flaps and stall horn. To turn cockpit sounds on or off, select Cockpit.


	Use the slider to adjust the sound volume for environmental sounds such as wind. To turn environment sounds on or off, select Environment.


	Use the slider to adjust the sound volume for navigation sounds such as marker beacons. To turn navigation sounds on or off, select Navigation.


	Use the slider to adjust the sound volume for adventure sounds such as radio communication. To turn adventure sounds on or off, select Adventures.


	Use the slider to adjust the sound volume for aircraft engine sounds. To turn engine sounds on or off, select Engine.


	Use the slider to adjust the sound volume for aircraft engine sounds. To turn engine sounds on or off, select Engine.


	If moving the joystick causes jerky control response or does not move the controls at all, move all sliders for control sensitivities to the center positions and click Calibrate. Controlling the Airplane with a Joystick


	Use the slider to adjust how much the ailerons move when you move the joystick or mouse left and right. To make the ailerons less sensitive to your inputs, drag the slider to the left of center. To make the ailerons more sensitive, drag the slider to the right.


	Use the slider to adjust how much the elevator moves when you move the joystick or forward and back. To make the elevator less sensitive to your inputs, drag the slider to the left of center. To make the elevator more sensitive, drag the slider to the right.


	Use the slider to adjust how much the rudder moves when you apply rudder pressure. To make the rudder less sensitive to your inputs, drag the slider to the left of center. To make the rudder more sensitive, drag the slider to the right.


	Use the slider to adjust the size of the null zone of the joystick or mouse. To require a larger motion of the joystick before it moves the controls, drag the slider to the left. To make the null zone narrower, drag the slider to the right.


	To choose the performance option, click the small arrow to the right and click the option you want.


	To choose the image quality and speed option, click the small arrow to the right and click the option you want.


	To speed up the frame rate display and reduce the scenery texture, click LoRes Mode. This option is recommended if you are using a computer with a 486 processor.


	To choose how air traffic control messages are displayed, click the small arrow to the right and then click Continuous or Single Line.


	To choose the display window for air traffic control messages, click the small arrow to the right and then click the option you want.


	To specify the type of airplane, map and scenery display options you want, click Display Options.


	Choose whether you want to hear sounds for the engine, cockpit or Morse code identifiers for navigation aids in Flight Simulator.


	To hear engine sounds during flights, click Engine.


	To hear cockpit sounds during flights, click Cockpit.


	To hear the Morse code identification of navigation aids, click Navigation. To hear the Morse code identifiers, you must tune a VOR, ILS, or NDB that’s within range and click the Ident knob on the appropriate radio.


	Use this dialog box to specify which settings are loaded automatically from a situation file when you start a flight.


	To load the airplane specified in the situation file when you start a flight, click Aircraft. Saving a Flight


	To load the weather settings specified in the situation file when you start a flight, click Weather. Saving a Flight


	To load the window settings specified in the situation file when you start a flight, click Window Positions. Saving a Flight


	To load the dynamic scenery settings specified in the situation file when you start a flight, click Dynamic Scenery. Saving a Flight


	Choose whether you want a Normal Flight, Demo Flight, or No Sound Demo when you start Flight Simulator.


	Choose whether you want a Normal Flight, Demo Flight, or No Sound Demo when you start Flight Simulator.


	Choose the time of day you want when you start Flight Simulator. To use the time on your system’s clock, click System Time. To use the time specified in the startup flight, click Flight Time.


	Choose whether you want Flight Simulator to start with sounds on or off.


	To select the flight video you want to play as a continuous demo when you start Flight Simulator, click Select Video.


	To select the flight that Flight Simulator uses at startup, click Select Flight.


	To show other aircraft and ground traffic when you start Flight Simulator, click Dynamic Scenery.


	To create random weather when you start Flight Simulator, click Weather Generation.


	To automatically record flights longer than 30 minutes in the logbook, click Log Flight Time.


	To see labels for instruments and controls when you point to them with the mouse, click Show Quicktips.


	To use the Advanced Weather dialog box to create specific weather effects, click Use Advanced Weather.


	To pause Flight Simulator if you switch to another application (for example, Microsoft Word), click Pause On Task Switch.


	To see a reminder message before exiting Flight Simulator, click Prompt On Exit.


	To see the Flight Simulator opening screen, click Show Opening Screen.


	To choose how often the instrument gauges are updated as you fly, click the small arrow on the right and then click Low, Medium, or High.


	To see through the space at the corners of panels, select Allow for non-rectangular panel windows.


	If you want to resize the instrument panel automatically when you resize the cockpit view window, select Allow panel to resize with parent window.


	To choose how often the instrument gauges are updated as you fly, click the small arrow on the right and then click Low, Medium, or High.


	To display true airspeed (TAS) instead of indicated airspeed (TAS), click Display True Airspeed.


	To display true airspeed (TAS) instead of indicated airspeed (TAS), click Display True Airspeed.


	Choose the tuning increment for the communication and ADF radios.


	To select radio frequencies in 25-kHz increments, click 25 kHz COM Frequency Increment.


	To select ADF channels in 100 Hz increments, click 100 Hz ADF Frequency Increment.


	Choose the units of measure you want to use.


	To choose the units of measure, click the small arrow to the right and highlight the option you want.


	Choose the latitude and longitude options you want.


	To choose the latitude, click the small arrow to the right and choose Northern or Southern.


	To choose the longitude, click the small arrow to the right and choose Western or Eastern.


	Use this dialog box to customize Flight Simulator to suit your preferences. Customizing Flight Simulator Preferences


	Click these tabs to see more options.


	Click here to set a variety of general options. Button ,JumpID(fs98.hlp>Concept,uf_custom_prefs)} Customizing Flight Simulator Preferences


	Click here to set options that control the how quickly the instrument displays update, whether the airspeed indicator displays indicated or true airspeed, and the frequency increment for tuning the COM and ADF radios. Airspeed Indicator Tuning the COM Radio Activating and Tuning the ADF


	Click here to set measurement system and latitude/longitude system you want to use. Customizing Flight Simulator Preferences


	Click here to set options that control the display of scenery and the sounds you hear in Flight Simulator. Customizing Flight Simulator Preferences


	Click here to select how you control Flight Simulator, calibrate joysticks, and to set the sensitivity of the flight controls. Using Joysticks


	Click here to select which characteristics are loaded with a flight. Creating a Flight Choosing a Flight You Created


	To reset all options to the original settings, click Defaults.


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to select a flight demonstration video.


	To see a flight demonstration video, choose the one you want from the list.


	Describes the selected flight demonstration video.


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to specify a name and description for a video, continue recording, review, save, or discard a video.


	Type a name for your video.


	Type a description for your video.


	To review the video you’ve recorded so far, click Review.


	To continue recording the video you started, Resume.


	To save the video you recorded, click Save Video.


	To discard the video you recorded, click Discard Video.


	Use this dialog box to play or discard a video you recorded earlier, or to record a new video.


	To play or delete a video, click the one you want.


	To record a smoother and more realistic video, click the small arrow on the right and choose the 1 Second interval. To record a longer at lower resolution, choose the 5 Second interval.


	To play the selected video continuously, click Repeat Replay.


	Describes the selected video.


	To play the selected video, click Play.


	To record a new video, click Record New.


	To delete the selected video, click Delete.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CLOSE.


	To change your display to show 256 colors, use the Windows Control Panel. In Windows, click Start on the taskbar. Click Settings, and then Control Panel. Next click Display, and in the Display Properties dialog box, click the Settings tab. Under Color Palette, click 256 Colors. You must reset your system after changing this option.


	To select display options if you have a 3D graphics accelerator card, choose from the lists under Full-Screen device and Full-Screen mode.


	Select this advanced option to use your graphics card to smooth ground and building textures. You should leave this option on if you have a 3D graphics accelerator card.


	Select this option to let Flight Simulator take advantage of improved visuals and enhanced performance through hardware acceleration, if it is available on your computer.


	To reset hardware acceleration options to their original settings, click Reset Defaults.


	Select this advanced option to use your graphics card to improve the visual effects of scenery when viewed from a distance.


	Select this advanced option to choose between 8-bit and 16-bit color depth of image textures. While 16-bit image textures are visually better-looking and work well when MIP mapping is selected, some video cards are incapable of correctly displaying 16-bit image textures.


	Select the display driver that you want to use when you run Flight Simulator in full screen mode by clicking Full Screen on the Views menu. The list shows the drivers available on your system.


	Select the display driver that you want to use when you run Flight Simulator in full screen mode by clickingFull Screen on the Views menu. The list shows the drivers available on your system.


	Select the resolution you want Flight Simulator to use when you run Flight Simulator in full screen mode by clicking Full Screen on the Views menu or pressing ALT+ENTER. Flight Simulator will run more slowly at higher resolutions.


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	Use the options in this dialog box to change how the aircraft flight controls react to joystick, keyboard, or mouse inputs; to assign actions to keyboard shortcuts or joystick buttons, and to select force-feedback effects if you have a force-feedback joystick.


	If you have a force-feedback joystick, click this tab  to select force-feedback effects.


	Click this tab to select options that control how the aircraft flight controls react to joystick, keyboard, or mouse inputs.


	Click this tab to assign actions to keyboard shortcuts or joystick buttons.


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	No help is associated with this item.


	Select Repeat to make the assigned control action repeat automatically. This option is available for only certain control events.


	To assign an action to be used when Flight Simulator is in normal flight mode, select this option first.


	To assign an action to be used when Flight Simulator is in slew mode, select this option first.


	Scroll through this list to see all the actions you can assign to a key combination or joystick button or control.


	Scroll through this list to see all the currently assigned key combinations. To make a key assignment, click Assign.


	Scroll through this list to see all the currently assigned joystick buttons and controls. To make a button assignment, click Assign.


	Scroll through this list to see all the actions you can assign to a key combination or joystick button or control.


	Scroll through this list to see all the currently assigned joystick buttons and controls. To make a button assignment, click Assign.


	Scroll through this list to see all the currently assigned key combinations. To make a key assignment, click Assign.


	No help is associated with this item.


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	To return all keyboard combinations and joystick buttons and controls to their original assignments, click Reset Defaults.


	After selecting an action you want to assign to a key combination or joystick button or control, click Assign.


	To remove an action from a key combination or joystick button or control, first select the key combination or joystick button or control in the columns above, and then click Clear.


	To use a joystick, select this option.


	To use a joystick, select this option.


	To ensure that the joystick is working properly, click Calibrate.


	To control how Flight Simulator reacts to keyboard and joystick inputs, change these options.


	Select the control device that you want to adjust.


	Use the slider to adjust the size of the null zone of the joystick or mouse. To require a larger motion of the joystick or mouse before it moves the controls, drag the slider to the left. To make the null zone narrower, drag the slider to the right.


	Use the slider to adjust how much the control surfaces move when you move the joystick or mouse. To make the controls less sensitive, drag the slider to the left. To make the controls more sensitive, drag the slider to the right.


	To switch the direction of the joystick axis, select Reverse axis. This may be particularly useful for some add-on input device hardware.


	To restore all the original settings for the keyboard, joystick, or mouse, click Reset Defaults.


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	To close the dialog box, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	No help topic is associated with this item.


	To enable Force Feedback effects, select this option and then select individual effects to suit your preferences.


	To select specific force feedback effects, first make sure the Master Force Feedback option is selected.


	To make the stick shake when you crash, select this option.


	To make the stick shake as you approach a stall, select this option. The stick shaker option applies only to the 737-400 and Learjet 45, which are equipped with stick shakers.


	To feel trim forces on the elevator and the effects of changing airspeed on the ailerons, select this option.


	To feel vibration as the aircraft’s wheels roll over the ground, select this option.


	To feel a “thump” in the stick when the landing gear extends or retracts, select this option. This effect is available only on the Cessna Skylane RG, Learjet 45, and Boeing 737-400.


	Shows information about your flight path after you crash. Using Crash Detection


	No Help topic associated with this item.


	Shows information about your speed and flight path if you crash. Using Crash Detection


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To ignore crashes and continue flying, click Ignore Crash. Using Crash Detection


	To see a message if you crash and then immediately reset the flight, click Detect Crash And Reset Situation. Using Crash Detection


	To see an analysis of a crash, including your rate of descent and flight path, click Detect Crash And Show Graph. Using Crash Detection


	If you want the airplane to suffer structural damage if you exceed airspeed, G, or engine limits, click Aircraft Receives Damage From Stress. Using Crash Detection Important Airspeeds


	To show the damage to the plane from crashes, click Show Aircraft Damage. Using Crash Detection


	To make your aircraft susceptible to damage if you run off the runway or land away from an airport, click Off-Runway Crash Realism. Using Crash Detection


	To detect crashes if you hit other aircraft or ground vehicles, click Crash When Hitting Dynamic Scenery. Using Crash Detection Displaying Dynamic Scenery


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	The starter switch engages the starter and controls which set of magnetos supplies electricity to the ignition system. To select the starter or a set of magnetos, click the small arrow on the right and choose Both, Start, Left or Right. The normal position is Both or Start. Ignition Systems Setting Engine Options


	To select the starter, generator, or a set of magnetos for engine 1, click the small arrow on the right. If you're flying a prop airplane, choose Both, Start, Left or Right. The normal position is Both or Start. If you're flying a jet, choose Off, Start, or Gen. Ignition Systems Setting Engine Options


	To select the starter, generator, or a set of magnetos for engine 2, click the small arrow on the right. If you're flying a prop airplane, choose Both, Start, Left or Right. The normal position is Both or Start. If you're flying a jet, choose Off, Start, or Gen. Ignition Systems Setting Engine Options


	To select the starter, generator, or a set of magnetos for engine 3, click the small arrow on the right. If you're flying a prop airplane, choose Both, Start, Left or Right. The normal position is Both or Start. If you're flying a jet, choose Off, Start, or Gen. Ignition Systems Setting Engine Options


	To select the starter, generator, or a set of magnetos for engine 4, click the small arrow on the right. If you're flying a prop airplane, choose Both, Start, Left or Right. The normal position is Both or Start. If you're flying a jet, choose Off, Start, or Gen. Ignition Systems Setting Engine Options


	To change the power settings for all engines simultaneously, click Adjust All Engines. To change settings for each engine independently, turn this option off. Setting Engine Options Piston Engine Controls Turbine Engine Controls


	To make the power controls adjust only engine 1, make sure the Adjust All Engines option is off and select this option.  Setting Engine Options Piston Engine Controls Turbine Engine Controls


	To make the power controls adjust only engine 2, make sure the Adjust All Engines option is off and select this option.  Setting Engine Options Piston Engine Controls Turbine Engine Controls


	To make the power controls adjust only engine 3, make sure the Adjust All Engines option is off and select this option.  Setting Engine Options Piston Engine Controls Turbine Engine Controls


	To make the power controls adjust only engine 4, make sure the Adjust All Engines option is off and select this option.  Setting Engine Options Piston Engine Controls Turbine Engine Controls


	To change the power settings for all engines simultaneously, click Adjust All Engines. To change settings for each engine independently, turn this option off and select each engine separately. Setting Engine Options Piston Engine Controls Turbine Engine Controls


	To turn on the magnetos, click Magnetos. Setting Engine Options Ignition Systems Piston Engine Controls


	To turn on the magnetos, click Magnetos. Setting Engine Options Ignition Systems Piston Engine Controls


	To manually control the air/fuel ratio, click Mixture Control. Setting Engine Options Piston Engine Controls


	If you want to adjust the propeller control (RPM) manually, select Manual. To fly with a fixed-pitch propeller, select Fixed Pitch. To have Flight Simulator adjust RPM, select Automatic. Piston Engine Controls Propellers Setting Engine Options


	To make the engines flame out at or above 48,000 ft (14,600 m), click Flameout. Setting Engine Options Turbine Engine Controls


	To control which fuel tank supplies fuel, first click Manual Fuel Control. Then, under Fuel Selector, select a tank. If you select Off, the engine does not burn fuel. If you want the engine to quit when you run out of fuel, select the Engine Stops When Out of Fuel option on the Realism tab. Setting Engine Options Fuel Systems


	Displays the weight of the current type of fuel (avgas or jet fuel) in lbs/gallon or kg/l, depending on whether you've chosen the U.S. or metric measurement system. Fuel Systems


	To choose which fuel tank supplies fuel to your airplane’s engine, make sure Manual Fuel Control is on. Then click the small arrow next to Fuel Selector and select the appropriate fuel tank. Fuel Systems


	Type the amount of fuel you want in each tank. You can enter amounts as a percentage, or in gallons or pounds, or liters or kilograms, depending on whether you've chosen the U.S. or metric measurement system. Fuel Systems


	Type the amount of fuel (in percent) that you want in each available fuel tank. Flight Simulator adjusts the gallons or liters and pounds or kilos when you move to another edit box or choose OK. The maximum capacity for each tank is shown on the right. Fuel Systems


	Type the amount of fuel (in percent) that you want in the left fuel tank. Flight Simulator adjusts the gallons or liters and pounds or kilos when you move to another edit box or choose OK. The maximum capacity for each tank is shown on the right. Fuel Systems


	Type the amount of fuel (in percent) that you want in the right fuel tank. Flight Simulator adjusts the gallons or liters and pounds or kilos when you move to another edit box or choose OK. The maximum capacity for each tank is shown on the right. Fuel Systems


	Type the amount of fuel (in percent) that you want in the right auxiliary fuel tank. Flight Simulator adjusts the gallons or liters and pounds or kilos when you move to another edit box or choose OK. The maximum capacity for each tank is shown on the right. Fuel Systems


	Type the amount of fuel (in percent) that you want in the left auxiliary fuel tank. Flight Simulator adjusts the gallons or liters and pounds or kilos when you move to another edit box or choose OK. The maximum capacity for each tank is shown on the right. Fuel Systems


	Type the amount of fuel that you want in the left fuel tank. Fuel Systems


	Type the amount of fuel that you want in the right fuel tank. Fuel Systems


	Type the amount of fuel that you want in the right auxiliary fuel tank. Fuel Systems


	Type the number of gallons or liters you want in each fuel tank. Flight Simulator adjusts the percentage and pounds or kilos when you move to another edit box or choose OK. The maximum capacity for each tank is shown on the right. Fuel Systems


	Type the number of gallons or liters you want in the left fuel tank. Flight Simulator adjusts the percentage and pounds or kilos when you move to another edit box or choose OK. The maximum capacity for each tank is shown on the right. Fuel Systems


	Type the number of gallons or liters you want in the right fuel tank. Flight Simulator adjusts the percentage and pounds or kilos when you move to another edit box or choose OK. The maximum capacity for each tank is shown on the right. Fuel Systems


	Type the number of gallons or liters you want in the right auxiliary fuel tank. Flight Simulator adjusts the percentage and pounds or kilos when you move to another edit box or choose OK. The maximum capacity for each tank is shown on the right. Fuel Systems


	Type the number of pounds or kilos of fuel you want in each fuel tank. Flight Simulator adjusts the percentage and gallons or liters when you move to another edit box or choose OK. The maximum capacity for each tank is shown on the right. Fuel Systems


	Type the number of pounds or kilos of fuel you want in left fuel tank. Flight Simulator adjusts the percentage and gallons or liters when you move to another edit box or choose OK. The maximum capacity for each tank is shown on the right. Fuel Systems


	Type the number of pounds or kilos of fuel you want in the right fuel tank. Flight Simulator adjusts the percentage and gallons or liters when you move to another edit box or choose OK. The maximum capacity for each tank is shown on the right. Fuel Systems


	Type the number of pounds or kilos of fuel you want in the right auxiliary fuel tank. Flight Simulator adjusts the percentage and gallons or liters when you move to another edit box or choose OK. The maximum capacity for each tank is shown on the right. Fuel Systems


	Displays the capacity of each fuel tank. Fuel Systems


	Displays the capacity of each fuel tank. Fuel Systems


	Displays the capacity of each fuel tank. Fuel Systems


	Displays the capacity of each fuel tank. Fuel Systems


	Displays the capacity of each fuel tank. Fuel Systems


	Type the amount of fuel (in percent) that you want in the center fuel tank. Flight Simulator adjusts the gallons or liters and pounds or kilos when you move to another edit box or choose OK. The maximum capacity for each tank is shown on the right. Fuel Systems


	Type the amount of fuel (in percent) that you want in the center fuel tank. Flight Simulator adjusts the gallons or liters and pounds or kilos when you move to another edit box or choose OK. The maximum capacity for each tank is shown on the right. Fuel Systems


	Type the amount of fuel (in percent) that you want in the center fuel tank. Flight Simulator adjusts the gallons or liters and pounds or kilos when you move to another edit box or choose OK. The maximum capacity for each tank is shown on the right. Fuel Systems


	Type the amount of fuel (in percent) that you want in the center fuel tank. Flight Simulator adjusts the gallons or liters and pounds or kilos when you move to another edit box or choose OK. The maximum capacity for each tank is shown on the right. Fuel Systems


	Type the amount of fuel (in percent) that you want in the center fuel tank. Flight Simulator adjusts the gallons or liters and pounds or kilos when you move to another edit box or choose OK. The maximum capacity for each tank is shown on the right. Fuel Systems


	These buttons control whether you can tune and set the communication and navigation radios, ADF, and transponder. For normal flight, you should leave all these options on. Tuning the COM Radio Tuning the NAV Radios


	To activate the COM radio, turn this option on. Tuning the COM Radio


	To activate the NAV radios, turn this option on. Tuning the NAV Radios


	To activate the Automatic Direction Finder, turn this option on. To display the ADF indicator on the Extra 300S you must also press SHIFT+TAB to replace the VOR 2 indicator with the ADF display. Activating and Tuning the ADF Non-Directional Beacons (NDB)


	To activate the transponder, turn this option on. Setting the Transponder


	You can make the compass fail or hide the compass indicator. Click the small arrow to the right and select Operative, Inoperative, or Hidden.


	Use these options to activate or fail instruments for various aircraft systems.


	Select this option to activate the fuel system instruments. Fuel Systems


	Select this option to activate the engine instruments. Setting Engine Options


	Select this option to activate or fail the attitude and heading indicators in the Cessna Skylane and Extra 300S. Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments


	To turn the power to the radios and instruments on and off, click Electrical. Electrical Systems


	To activate or fail the pitot-static instruments (altimeter, airspeed indicator, and vertical speed indicator), click Pitot-Static. The Pitot Static Instruments


	To activate, fail, or hide flight and engine instruments, click the small arrow to the right of the instrument and select an option.


	To activate, fail, or hide the airspeed indicator, click the small arrow to the right and then select Operative, Inoperative or Hidden. Airspeed Indicator


	To activate, fail, or hide the attitude indicator, click the small arrow to the right and then select Operative, Inoperative or Hidden. Attitude Indicator


	To activate, fail, or hide the altimeter, click the small arrow to the right and then select Operative, Inoperative or Hidden. Altimeter


	To activate, fail, or hide the heading indicator, click the small arrow to the right and then select Operative, Inoperative or Hidden. Heading Indicator


	To activate, fail, or hide the turn coordinator, click the small arrow to the right and then select Operative, Inoperative or Hidden. Turn Coordinator


	To activate, fail, or hide the vertical speed indicator, click the small arrow to the right and then select Operative, Inoperative or Hidden. Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)


	Use this dialog box to customize settings for the airplanes. You can make aircraft instruments and systems fail, operate the fuel system, and select other options that make your flights more realistic and challenging.


	Click these tabs to see more options.


	No Help topic associated with this item.


	No Help topic associated with this item.


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	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click Cancel.


	To choose how realistically the flight controls respond to your inputs, drag the slider right or left. Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	To move the rudder and ailerons together to maintain coordinated flight, click Auto-coordination. When Auto-coordination is off, the rudder and ailerons move separately. If you want to use rudder pedals or a joystick that supports rudder movement, turn this option off. Operating Airplane Control Surfaces


	Click Instrument Lights if you want to control the instrument panel and navigation lights manually. When this option is selected, you must turn the lights on and off by clicking the lights indicator on the instrument panel or by pressing L. To turn the landing light on or off, press CTRL+L. Making Your Flights More Realistic


	To make the engine stop when you run out of fuel, click Engine Stops When Out Of Fuel. To make the engines use fuel, select a fuel tank under Fuel Selector on the Fuel tab. If the fuel selector is set to Off, the engine does not burn fuel. Setting Engine Options


	The smoke system switch option turns the airshow smoke system on and off. To turn smoke on or off with the keyboard, press I.


	To specify an altimeter setting, type a measurement in inches of mercury or millibars. To set the altimeter to the current pressure, press B. Altimeter


	Shows the current atmospheric pressure in inches of mercury (Hg) and millibars. To set the altimeter to the current pressure, press B. Altimeter Atmospheric Pressure


	To specify an altimeter setting, type a measurement in inches of mercury or millibars. To set the altimeter to the current pressure, press B. Altimeter Atmospheric Pressure


	To specify an altimeter setting in inches of mercury (hg), type a pressure here. To set the altimeter to the current pressure, press B. Altimeter Atmospheric Pressure


	To specify an altimeter setting in millibars, type the pressure here. To set the altimeter to the current pressure, press B. Altimeter Atmospheric Pressure


	Use this dialog box to control how reliable your airplane is. You can set options to control whether lights, the engine, instruments, and other systems on the airplane operate properly or fail occasionally. Making Your Flights More Realistic


	To have individual instrument panel lights burn out occasionally, click Lights Burn Out. Making Your Flights More Realistic


	To see the effects of precession on the heading indicator or directional gyro, click Gyro Drift. Principles of Gyroscopic Instruments Making Your Flights More Realistic


	Use this dialog box to control what you see out the windows. You can choose the view for any window and customize view settings. You can have several windows open at once, each with a different view. Looking Out the Window Choosing a View or Direction


	Click here to select the window for which you want to set options. Looking Out the Window


	To choose a view  type for the current window, select an option below. Looking Out the Window


	To see the view from the pilot's seat, click Cockpit. Looking Out the Window


	To see the view from the control tower, click Tower. Looking Out the Window


	To see the view from the spot plane, click Spot Plane. Looking Out the Window


	To lock your view to another aircraft during a multiplayer session, click Track. Looking Out the Window


	To see your position on a moving map, click Map. Looking Out the Window


	To display a reference marker to help you maintain your orientation relative to the horizon, select a type of axis indicator from the list. Looking Out the Window


	To show the name of the view in each window, click Show Titles in Windows. Looking Out the Window


	This area shows the options available for the current window and displays a preview of the window with you options you select. Looking Out the Window


	No help is available for this item.


	The preview window shows what the view will look like with the currently selected options. Looking Out the Window


	Select the altitude above ground level from which you want to see the map in map view. Looking Out the Window


	Select the direction from which you want to look out the cockpit windows. Choosing a View or Direction


	Type the distance in feet between your plane and the spot plane. You can press PLUS SIGN or MINUS SIGN to zoom in or out while in spot plane view. Choosing a View or Direction


	Enter the altitude in feet of the spot plane relative to your airplane.  Choosing a View or Direction


	To make the view from the spot plane change position change gradually, click Gradual Transition. If you clear this option, the view changes instantly. Choosing a View or Direction


	To hide the instrument panel when you look left, right, or to the rear, click Auto Full Screen. Choosing a View or Direction


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click Cancel.


	To see a 3-D view of the aircraft interior, click Virtual Cockpit. This view is available only in the Cessna Skylane 182S, Bell 206B JetRanger III, and Learjet 45. Looking Out the Window Choosing a View or Direction


	Type a zoom (magnification) factor. You can also press PLUS SIGN or MINUS SIGN to zoom in or out in any active window. Press BACKSPACE to reset normal magnification. Looking Out the Window Choosing a View or Direction


	To select how the view from the spot plane changes as you move the spot plane around your aircraft, select a transition type from the list. Choosing a View or Direction


	To select how the view from the spot plane changes as you move the spot plane around your aircraft, select a transition type from the list. Choosing a View or Direction


	To connect with other Flight Simulator pilots, follow the instructions on this and the following dialog boxes. To go to the next dialog box, click Next. To return to the previous dialog box, click Back. Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots


	No help is available for this item.


	To connect with other Flight Simulator pilots, follow the instructions on this and the following dialog boxes. To go to the next dialog box, click Next. To return to the previous dialog box, click Back. Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots


	If you always want to see this screen as you start a multiplayer session, select this option. To skip this screen, clear this option. Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots


	To return to the previous screen, click Back.


	To continue to the next screen, click Next.


	To return to Flight Simulator without starting a multiplayer session, click Cancel.


	Select options in this dialog box to set your call sign and whether you want to join an existing session or host a new session. Starting a Multiplayer Session Setting Multiplayer Options


	No help is available for this item.


	Select options in this dialog box to set your call sign and whether you want to join an existing session or host a new session. Starting a Multiplayer Session Setting Multiplayer Options


	Enter the name you want to use for this multiplayer session. Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots


	Select the how you want to join a session from the options below. Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots


	To join an existing session as a pilot or observer, click this button. Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots


	To host a new session, click this button. Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots


	To connect with other pilots on the Internet Gaming Zone, click this button. Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots


	To return to the previous screen, click Back.


	To continue to the next screen, click Next.


	To return to Flight Simulator without starting a multiplayer session, click Cancel.


	Use the options in this dialog box to host a new session. You must give the session a name and specify how many people can join. Starting a Multiplayer Session Setting Multiplayer Options


	Click this button to set options if you’ve decided to host a session. You can set the maximum number of pilots and observers plus other options. Setting Multiplayer Options


	Enter a name for the multiplayer session you want to host. Starting a Multiplayer Session Setting Multiplayer Options


	Set the maximum number of pilots that you want to allow to join the multiplayer session. Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots


	Set the maximum number of observers that you want to allow to join the multiplayer session. Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots


	If you want to host a session without flying, click this button. Starting a Multiplayer Session Setting Multiplayer Options


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	To set tracking and other options for a multiplayer session, click this button. Setting Multiplayer Options


	To return to the previous screen, click Back.


	To continue to the next screen, click Next.


	To return to Flight Simulator without starting a multiplayer session, click Cancel.


	To link up with other pilots, select the type of connection you want to use. If you’re connecting over the Internet, select TCP/IP. If you’re dialing another computer directly, select Modem Connection. Starting a Multiplayer Session


	To continue to the next screen, click Next.


	To link up with other pilots, select the type of connection you want to use. If you’re connecting over the Internet, select TCP/IP. If you’re dialing another computer directly, select Modem Connection. Starting a Multiplayer Session


	To link up with other pilots, select the type of connection you want to use. If you’re connecting over the Internet, select TCP/IP. If you’re dialing another computer directly, select Modem Connection. Starting a Multiplayer Session


	To return to the previous screen, click Back.


	To host a multiplayer session, click this button. Starting a Multiplayer Session


	To return to Flight Simulator without starting a multiplayer session, click Cancel.


	To fly with other pilots, select options in this dialog box. Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots


	To join an existing multiplayer session, select options in this dialog box. Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots


	To update the display of currently available sessions, click Refresh.


	This area shows the available sessions and the number of pilots and observers who are participating in each session. Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots


	To join a session as an observer, click this button. Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots


	To see more details about the selected multiplayer session, click this button. Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots


	To change settings for the current multiplayer session, click this button. Setting Multiplayer Options


	To return to the previous screen, click Back.


	To join the selected session, click this button.


	To return to Flight Simulator without starting a multiplayer session, click Cancel.


	To change settings for the current multiplayer session, select options in this dialog box. Setting Multiplayer Options


	To set tracking and visual detail preferences, select options below. Setting Multiplayer Options


	To see the names of other pilots next to their aircraft, click this button. Multiplayer: Flying with Other Pilots


	To change the amount of information you send and receive during a multiplayer session, select options below. Setting Multiplayer Options


	To send detailed information about your aircraft to others, click this option. Sending detailed information may affect system performance. Setting Multiplayer Options


	To receive detailed information about other aircraft, click this option. Receiving detailed information may affect system performance. Setting Multiplayer Options


	To set flight conditions for this session, click this button. Setting Multiplayer Options


	To change the settings for the session you're hosting, click this button. Setting Multiplayer Options


	To help you keep track of other aircraft during a multiplayer session, selection options below. Setting Multiplayer Options


	Select this option to use the ADF indicator on your instrument panel to point to another aircraft during a multiplayer session. Setting Multiplayer Options   Activating and Tuning the ADF


	Select this option to display the distance to another aircraft during a multiplayer session. The distance appears in nautical miles on the number 1 DME indicator on your instrument panel   Setting Multiplayer Options   Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)


	Select this option to use your autopilot to follow another aircraft automatically during a multiplayer session. Setting Multiplayer Options   Using the Autopilot


	Select these options to control the amount of information you send and receive during this multiplayer session. Setting Multiplayer Options


	Select this option to use your autopilot to follow another aircraft automatically during a multiplayer session. Setting Multiplayer Options   Using the Autopilot


	Select this option to use the ADF indicator on your instrument panel to point to another aircraft during a multiplayer session. Setting Multiplayer Options   Activating and Tuning the ADF


	Click this button to receive information about the weather and other options for this multiplayer session. This information comes from the session host’s .computer. If you are a host, click this button to send information to other players. Setting Multiplayer Options


	No help is available for this item.


	To accept these settings, click OK.


	To continue selecting options without changing the session settings, click Cancel.


	This dialog box shows details about the current multiplayer session. Setting Multiplayer Options


	This area shows the name of the current session. Setting Multiplayer Options


	This area shows the call signs of the players in the current session. Setting Multiplayer Options


	To remove a pilot or observer from the current session, click this button. Setting Multiplayer Options


	This number shows how many pilots are participating in the current session. Setting Multiplayer Options


	No help is available for this item.


	This number shows how many observers are participating in the current session. Setting Multiplayer Options


	To accept these settings click OK.


	To close this dialog box and return to Flight Simulator,  click Cancel.


	Use this dialog box to change the time of day, date, month, or season for a flight. Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	Click these tabs to see more options.


	Choose this tab to change the season (time of year) for a flight. Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	Choose this tab to change the time of day for a flight. Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Displays the current local time set in your system clock. Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	Displays the current Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). In aviation, this time is now known as Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). On flight plans and in weather reports GMT or UTC is indicated by “Z” or “Zulu.” Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	Indicates if daylight saving time is active or inactive. Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	Displays the current Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). In aviation, this time is now known as Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). On flight plans and in weather reports GMT or UTC is indicated by “Z” or “Zulu.” Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	Indicates if daylight saving time is active or inactive. Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	To choose a general time for a flight, click Time of Day. Then click the small arrow to the right and choose Dawn, Day, Dusk or Night. Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	To set the exact hour and minutes for a flight, click Set Exact Time. Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	To choose a general time for a flight, click Time of Day. Then click the small arrow to the right and choose Dawn, Day, Dusk or Night. Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	Type the hour that you want to set (in local time). Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	Type the minutes portion of the time you want to set (in local time). Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	Type the hour that you want to set (in Greenwich Mean Time). Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	Type the minutes portion of the time you want to set (in Greenwich Mean Time). Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	To reset the seconds, click Reset Seconds To Zero. Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	To choose a season for a flight, click the small arrow to the right and then click Winter, Spring, Summer, or Fall. Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	Displays the current local time set in your system clock. Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	To set a season for a flight, click Set Season, and then click Winter, Spring, Summer, or Fall from the list. Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	To set the exact date for a flight, click Set Exact Date. Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	Type the month for the flight. If the date you enter is the first or last day of the month, make sure you take into account the difference between your local time and Greenwich Mean Time. Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	Type the day you want for a flight. Take into account the difference between your local time and Greenwich Mean Time. Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	Type the year you want for a flight. If the date you enter is the first or last day of the year, make sure you take into account the difference between your local time and Greenwich Mean Time. Changing the Date, Time, or Season


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	Use this dialog box to go directly to a specific airport. You can find information about airports, VORs, and NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Pilot’s Help. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To choose the scenery area that includes the airport you want to go to, click the small arrow to the right and then click a scenery area. You can find information about airports, VORs, and NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Pilot’s Help. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To choose an airport from the selected scenery area, click the small arrow to the right and then click an airport. You can find information about airports, VORs, and NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Pilot’s Help. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To automatically tune the navigation and communication radios to the facilities at the new location, click Set Radio Frequency To New Location. You can find information about airports, VORs, and NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Pilot’s Help. Using the Airport/Facility Directory Tuning the COM Radio Tuning the NAV Radios


	This area displays information about the selected airport. You can find additional information about airports, VORs, and NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Pilot’s Help. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Displays the field elevation in feet above sea level of the selected airport. You can find additional information about airports, VORs, and NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Pilot’s Help. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Displays the heading of your aircraft. You can find additional information about airports, VORs, and NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Pilot’s Help. Heading Indicator Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Displays the latitude of the selected airport. You can find additional information about airports, VORs, and NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Pilot’s Help. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Displays the longitude of the selected airport. You can find additional information about airports, VORs, and NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Pilot’s Help. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to go to a specific location using either latitude/longitude or X/Z coordinates. You can find the latitude/longitude for airports, VORs, and NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Pilot’s Help. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	This area shows the current position, altitude, and heading of your airplane. You can find the latitude/longitude for airports, VORs, and NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Pilot’s Help. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To specify the exact position for your airplane, click Aircraft. To set the location of the control tower (used for tower view), click Control Tower. To specify the coordinates of the airplane or tower, type the latitude and longitude or X/Z coordinates. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Type the altitude for your airplane in the new location. If the new location is an airport, you can check the field elevation in the Airport/Facility Directory in Pilot’s Help. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Shows the current altitude or the altitude you typed.


	Type the compass heading you want for your airplane at the new location. If the new location is an airport, you can check the runway orientations in the Airport/Facility Directory in Pilot’s Help. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Displays the current aircraft heading or the heading you typed. Heading Indicator


	To specify a new location using latitude and longitude, click Set Location With Latitude & Longitude. You can find the latitude/longitude for airports, VORs, and NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Pilot’s Help. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Type the latitude of the new location in hours, minutes, and seconds (HH MM SS); for example, 41 51 13.You can find the latitude/longitude for airports, VORs, and NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory in Pilot’s Help. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Shows the latitude of the current location or the latitude you typed in hours, minutes, and seconds. You can find the latitude/longitude for airports, VORs, and NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Type the longitude of the new location in hours, minutes, and seconds (HH MM SS); for example, 87 36 27.You can find the latitude/longitude for airports, VORs, and NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Shows the longitude of the current location or the location you typed in hours, minutes, and seconds. You can find the latitude/longitude for airports, VORs, and NDBs in the Airport/Facility Directory. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	If you’re using X/Z coordinates, type the north coordinate here. Going to an Exact Location


	Shows the current north coordinate if you’re using X/Z coordinates. Going to an Exact Location


	If you’re using X/Z coordinates, type the east coordinate here. Going to an Exact Location


	Shows the current east coordinate if you’re using X/Z coordinates. Going to an Exact Location


	To specify the region to which the current X/Z coordinates apply, click the small arrow to the right and select a region. Going to an Exact Location


	To set the location of the control tower (used for tower view) to your aircraft's current position, click Set Tower View. Choosing a View or Direction


	To specify a location using north/east coordinates, click Set Location With X/Z Coordinates. This system was used in Flight Simulator, version 4.0 and earlier.


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to change basic weather settings. To control the weather more precisely, choose Preferences from the Options menu and select the Use Advanced Weather Dialog option on the General tab. Then choose the Weather command again. Weather Features in Flight Simulator Aviation Weather


	To select a general level of cloudiness, click the small arrow to the right and then select an option. To control the weather more precisely, choose Preferences from the Options menu and select the Use Advanced Weather Dialog option on the General tab. Then choose the Weather command again. Creating Cloud Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	To set a general wind level, click the small arrow to the right and then choose the option you want. To control the weather more precisely, choose Preferences from the Options menu and select the Use Advanced Weather Dialog option on the General tab. Then choose the Weather command again. Weather Features in Flight Simulator Creating Wind Layers


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	To select a general level of cloudiness, click the small arrow to the right and then select an option. To control the weather more precisely, choose Preferences from the Options menu and select the Use Advanced Weather Dialog option on the General tab. Then choose the Weather command again. Creating Cloud Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	To select the visibility below the lowest cloud layer, click the small arrow to the right and then select a specific visibility. Weather Features in Flight Simulator Creating Cloud Layers


	To randomly assign winds when you have selected Automatic Weather, click Winds. Weather Features in Flight Simulator Creating Wind Layers


	Select this option if you want Flight Simulator to change the weather as you fly. When this option is on, weather you created is disabled. This option affects weather in the global weather area. Weather Features in Flight Simulator Aviation Weather


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to set detailed weather options in Flight Simulator. If you want to select only basic weather options, choose Preferences from the Options menu and turn off the Use Advanced Weather Dialog option on the General tab. Then choose the Weather command again. Weather Features in Flight Simulator Aviation Weather


	Use this dialog box to set detailed weather options in Flight Simulator. If you want to select only basic weather options, turn off the Use Advanced Weather Dialog option on the General tab of the Preferences dialog box. Weather Features in Flight Simulator Aviation Weather


	Click these tabs to see more options.


	To add a cloud, wind, or temperature layer, click the appropriate tab, click Add Layer, and then select the options you want. Weather Features in Flight Simulator Aviation Weather


	To remove a cloud, wind, or temperature layer, click the appropriate tab, select the layer you want to remove, and then click Remove Layer. Weather Features in Flight Simulator Aviation Weather


	Click here to add or delete cloud layers. Creating Cloud Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	Click here to add or delete wind layers. Creating Wind Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	Click here to add or delete temperature layers. Creating Temperature Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	Click here to set the visibility beneath the lowest cloud layer. Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	Click here to set atmospheric pressure and make it change over time. Weather Features in Flight Simulator Atmospheric Pressure


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Displays the current cloud layers. Creating Cloud Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	Type the height of the base (bottom) of the cloud layer. The base for a user defined cloud layer must be in the range 328–45,920 ft MSL. Creating Cloud Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	Type the height for the top of the cloud layer. The height must be in the range 338–65,485 ft MSL. Creating Cloud Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	Type the deviation—how much the cloud bases vary for realism—from the heights in the Cloud Base box. The deviation must be in the range 0–656 feet (MSL). Creating Cloud Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	To set the level of turbulence, select a cloud layer, then drag the slider to the left for light turbulence; to the right for heavy turbulence. You can set turbulence for each cloud layer. Creating Cloud Layers Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	To select the type of clouds for a cloud layer, select a layer, and then click the small arrow to the right. Choose the type of cloud you want to appear in that layer. Creating Cloud Layers Cloud Types


	To select the amount of sky covered by a cloud layer, select a layer, and then click the small arrow to the right. Choose the coverage for that layer. Creating Cloud Layers Aviation Weather


	To create icing conditions in a cloud layer when the temperature is 5 degrees Celsius or below, select a layer, and then click Icing. Creating Cloud Layers Ice


	Displays the wind layers you have defined. Creating Wind Layers


	Type the base height for the wind layer. For winds aloft, the base height must be in the range 3–100,001 feet (MSL). Base height does not apply to a surface wind layer. Creating Wind Layers


	Type the top height for the selected wind layer. A surface wind layer must have a depth in the range 3–99,999 feet. Creating Wind Layers


	Type the wind speed in knots. The speed must be in the range 0–199 knots. Creating Wind Layers


	Type the wind direction in degrees. For example, if you want the winds to blow from south, type 180. If you want the winds to blow from the north, type 360. Creating Wind Layers


	To select the type of winds for the selected wind layer, click the small arrow to the right and then choose Steady or Gusting. Creating Wind Layers


	Drag the slider to the left to set light turbulence for the selected wind layer, to the right for heavy turbulence. You can set a separate turbulence intensity for each wind layer. Creating Wind Layers


	Use this dialog box to change the current temperature and to create temperature layers. Creating Temperature Layers Moisture and Temperature


	Type the altitude for the temperature layer. Temperature layers must be at least 328 feet apart. Creating Temperature Layers Moisture and Temperature


	Type the daytime temperature. Creating Temperature Layers Moisture and Temperature


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	To add a realistic variance between daytime and evening temperatures, click Day/Night. The variation must be in the range 0–36 degrees Fahrenheit or 0–20 degrees Celsius. Creating Temperature Layers Moisture and Temperature


	Type the variation you want between the daytime and evening temperatures in degrees. The variation must be in the range 0–36 degrees Fahrenheit or 0–20 degrees Celsius. Creating Temperature Layers Moisture and Temperature


	Use this tab to change the visibility below the base of the lowest cloud layer. You must have at least one cloud layer to change the visibility. Changing Visibility Creating Cloud Layers Basic VFR Weather Minimums (FAR 91.155)


	Select the visibility below the base of the lowest cloud layer. You must have at least one cloud layer to change the visibility. Changing Visibility Creating Cloud Layers Basic VFR Weather Minimums (FAR 91.155)


	To make barometric pressure change as you fly, click Drift. If you select this option, make sure you set the altimeter (press B) before you take off, en route, and before you land. Altimeter Atmospheric Pressure


	Type the pressure you want in inches of mercury. The pressure should be in the range 25.01–34.99 in. When you return to Flight Simulator, make sure you set the altimeter (press B). Atmospheric Pressure Altimeter


	Type the pressure you want in millibars. The pressure should be in the range 847–1135 millibars. When you return to Flight Simulator, make sure you set the altimeter (press B). Atmospheric Pressure Altimeter


	Use this dialog box to add and change weather areas. You can add two local weather areas to the global area. To display the existing weather areas, click the up arrow or down arrow to see the list. To change an existing weather area, select the weather area, change any options, and then click OK. Fronts Adding a Weather Area


	To add a weather area, click Add Area, and then select the options you want for the area. You can add two local weather areas to the global area. To display the existing weather areas, click the up arrow or down arrow to see the list. To change an existing weather area, select the weather area, change any options, and then click OK. Fronts Adding a Weather Area


	To assign clouds and wind randomly for the weather area, click Clouds and Winds. Fronts Adding a Weather Area


	Type the beginning latitude for the weather area (HH MM SS); for example, type 60 45 30. Fronts Adding a Weather Area


	Type the beginning longitude for the weather area (HH MM SS); for example, type 60 45 30. Fronts Adding a Weather Area


	Type the ending latitude for the weather (HH MM SS); for example, type 60 45 30. Fronts Adding a Weather Area


	Shows the ending longitude for the weather area. Fronts Adding a Weather Area


	Type the width of the weather area in miles. The width must be in the range 0–2000 miles. Fronts Adding a Weather Area


	Type the distance you want between weather areas. The number must be in the range 0–99 miles. A small transition area means the weather changes abruptly; a large area results in a gradual change. Fronts Adding a Weather Area


	Type the direction from which you want the weather area to move. The direction must be a course in the range 001–360. For example, a weather area moving from the north has a course of 360. Fronts Adding a Weather Area


	Type the how fast you want the weather area to move. The speed must be in the range 0–99 knots. Fronts Adding a Weather Area


	To save the weather settings you created, make sure you save them as part of a flight. Saving a Flight


	To add a weather area, click Add Area and then select cloud, wind, and temperature layers, plus other options. You can add up to two weather areas to the global weather in Flight Simulator. Adding a Weather Area


	To remove a weather area, select the layer in the Weather Area box, and then click Remove Area. Deleting a Weather Area


	To copy all the settings from an existing weather area, highlight the layer you want in the Weather Area box, and then click Copy Weather.


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to copy weather characteristics saved in one weather area to another weather area. Adding a Weather Area Copying a Weather Area


	Select the weather area that contains the characteristics that you want to copy. Adding a Weather Area Copying a Weather Area


	Select the weather area that you want to copy weather characteristics to. Adding a Weather Area Copying a Weather Area


	To copy all of the weather categories in a weather area (clouds, winds, temperature, pressure, and visibility), select this option. If you want to copy only some categories, turn this option off and then select individual categories. Adding a Weather Area Copying a Weather Area


	To copy the cloud layers in one weather area to another weather area, select this option. To copy all weather categories, select the Whole Area With All Weather Categories option. Copying a Weather Area Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	To copy the wind layers in one weather area to another weather area, select this option. To copy all weather categories, select the Whole Area With All Weather Categories option. Copying a Weather Area Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	To copy the temperature layers in one weather area to another weather area, select this option. To copy all weather categories, select the Whole Area With All Weather Categories option. Copying a Weather Area Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	To copy the visibility from one weather area to another weather area, select this option. To copy all weather categories, select the Whole Area With All Weather Categories option. Copying a Weather Area Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	To copy the barometric pressure from one weather area to another weather area, select this option. To copy all weather categories, select the Whole Area With All Weather Categories option. Copying a Weather Area Weather Features in Flight Simulator


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to set the level of detail you see out the window. You may want to experiment with these options to improve the performance of Flight Simulator or to add realism for a particular flight. Changing Scenery Complexity


	To see the moon and moonlight when you fly at night, click Moonlight At Night.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	Select the window for which you want to set scenery complexity. Changing Scenery Complexity Making a Window Active


	To specify the level of detail you see out the window, click the small arrow on the right and then click an option. To increase performance, select a lower density. To see the most detail, select Very Dense. Changing Scenery Complexity Making a Window Active


	To see the stars when you fly at night, click Stars At Night. Changing Scenery Complexity


	To see approach lights for runways, click Approach Lighting. Approach Lighting Systems


	For maximum performance, you can click Horizon Only to remove all scenery detail and see only the horizon. Before choosing this option you may want to try changing scenery complexity to improve performance without removing all scenery. Changing Scenery Complexity


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to control whether you see other aircraft and ground traffic as you fly. You may want to experiment with these options to achieve the best performance on your system or to make a particular flight more realistic. Displaying Dynamic Scenery Changing Scenery Complexity


	To see other aircraft while you’re flying, click Air Traffic. Displaying Dynamic Scenery Changing Scenery Complexity


	Select the window for which you want to set dynamic scenery. Changing Scenery Complexity Making a Window Active


	To see other aircraft while you’re on the ground, click Aircraft Ground Traffic. Displaying Dynamic Scenery Changing Scenery Complexity


	To see service vehicles around the airport, click Airport Service Traffic. Displaying Dynamic Scenery Changing Scenery Complexity


	To see other aircraft away from airports, click Traffic Outside Airports. Displaying Dynamic Scenery Changing Scenery Complexity


	To specify how frequently you see other aircraft and ground traffic, click the small arrow on the right and then click an option. You may want to experiment with these options to achieve the best performance on your system or to make a particular flight more realistic. Displaying Dynamic Scenery Changing Scenery Complexity


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to change scenery area files. Before you modify scenery areas, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using the Scenery Library


	To add, change, search for, arrange or delete any scenery files, select the scenery world and then click Files. Before you modify scenery areas, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using the Scenery Library


	Displays a description of the selected scenery world.


	To add, change, search for, arrange or delete any scenery files, select the scenery world and then click Files. Before you modify scenery areas, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using the Scenery Library


	To improve performance when you are using scenery files stored on a CD-ROM, you can use CD-ROM performance boosters. Flight Simulator automatically installs the performance boosters for the scenery you selected during setup. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to change scenery area files. Before editing scenery area files, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using the Scenery Library Changing Scenery Areas


	Displays the current scenery world (global scenery area). You can have only one active global scenery area. Using the Scenery Library Changing Scenery Areas


	Displays the title, location, type, layer, and status of the selected scenery area file. Using the Scenery Library Changing Scenery Areas


	Displays the title of the selected scenery area. Using the Scenery Library Changing Scenery Areas


	Displays the type (Global, Regional, or Local) of the selected scenery area. To change the scenery type, click the small arrow on the right and click a type. Using the Scenery Library Changing Scenery Areas


	Displays the title of the scenery area. Using the Scenery Library Changing Scenery Areas


	Displays the layer of the selected scenery area. To change the layer, type a number; 1 is the highest priority, 2 is next, and so on. Before you change the layer of a scenery area, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using the Scenery Library


	To make a scenery area active, click Scenery Area Active. Using the Scenery Library


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to change the layer (priority) of scenery area files. Before you change the layer of a scenery area, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using the Scenery Library


	Displays the name of the current scenery world.


	Click the Raise or Lower button to change the layer (priority) of a scenery area. Before you change the layer of a scenery area, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using the Scenery Library


	Displays the name, type, and layer (priority) of the installed scenery areas. Before you change the properties of a scenery area, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using the Scenery Library


	Displays the layer of the selected scenery layer. Before you change the layer of a scenery area, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using the Scenery Library


	To increase the priority of a scenery area file, click the scenery area and then click Raise Layer. Before you change the layer of a scenery area, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using the Scenery Library


	To decrease the priority of a scenery area file, click the scenery area and then click Lower Layer. Before you change the layer of a scenery area, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using the Scenery Library


	To make Flight Simulator arrange scenery areas automatically, click Auto Arrange. Before you change the layer of a scenery area, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using the Scenery Library


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to change scenery area files. Before you change a scenery area, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using the Scenery Library


	Displays the current scenery world.


	Displays the current scenery world.


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	Displays the title, location, type, layer, and status of scenery area files. Using the Scenery Library Changing Scenery Areas


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	To add a scenery area, click Add. Before you add a scenery area, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using the Scenery Library Adding Scenery Areas


	To change a scenery area, click Edit. Before you change a scenery area, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using the Scenery Library Changing Scenery Areas


	To remove a scenery area, click Delete. Before you delete a scenery area, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using the Scenery Library Deleting Scenery Areas


	To change the layer (priority) of scenery layers, click Arrange Layers. Before you change the layer of a scenery area, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using the Scenery Library Arranging Scenery Areas


	If you add scenery files without using an installation or setup program, click Search to locate them before adding them to Flight Simulator. Using the Scenery Library Searching for Scenery Files


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	If you add scenery files without using an installation or setup program, use this dialog box to locate them before adding them to Flight Simulator. Using the Scenery Library Searching for Scenery Files


	Displays the current global scenery area. Before changing this area, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using the Scenery Library


	Displays the current global scenery area. Before changing this area, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using the Scenery Library


	Displays the file name of the scenery area you’re searching for or adding. Using the Scenery Library


	Displays the scenery area title for the scenery area. Using the Scenery Library


	Displays the scenery area title for the scenery area. Using the Scenery Library


	To choose the scenery area type (Global, Regional, or Local), click the small arrow on the right and then click the type you want. Using the Scenery Library Searching for Scenery Files


	To select a drive to search, click the small arrow on the right and click a drive. To start searching, click Search Drive. Using the Scenery Library Searching for Scenery Files


	To make the scenery area active, click Scenery Area Active. Inactive files are not displayed in the search. Using the Scenery Library Searching for Scenery Files


	To add all *.bgl files to the scenery area, click Add All Files In Path. Using the Scenery Library Adding Scenery Areas


	To start searching the drive listed in Drive To Search, click Search Drive.


	To add a scenery area file, click Add File. Using the Scenery Library Adding Scenery Areas


	To search the next path and the same drive for scenery area files, click Next Path. Using the Scenery Library Searching for Scenery Files


	To search the same path and drive for the next scenery area file, click Next File. Using the Scenery Library Searching for Scenery Files


	Displays the path of the scenery area file.


	To close the dialog box, click CLOSE.


	Use this dialog box to add, edit, change or restart CD-ROM performance boosters. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster Using the Scenery Library


	Displays the currently installed CD-ROM performance boosters. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster Using the Scenery Library


	Displays a description of the selected CD-ROM performance boosters. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster Using the Scenery Library


	No Help topic is associated with this item.


	Displays the location of the selected performance booster. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster Using the Scenery Library


	Displays path to cache directory for the selected performance booster. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster Using the Scenery Library


	To restart the selected performance booster, click Restart. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster Using the Scenery Library


	To add a performance booster, click Add. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster Using the Scenery Library


	To change the selected performance booster, click Edit. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster Using the Scenery Library


	To remove a performance booster, click Delete. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster Using the Scenery Library


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	Use this dialog box to change the settings for a CD-ROM performance booster. You can change the directory used for cache, the size of the cache, and how the cache is updated. Before changing these settings, make sure you understand how to use the scenery library. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster Using the Scenery Library


	Displays the scenery areas currently installed for Flight Simulator. Using the Scenery Library


	Displays the scenery areas currently installed for Flight Simulator. Using the Scenery Library


	Displays the CD-ROM performance booster currently installed for Flight Simulator. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster Using the Scenery Library


	Displays the path to cache directory on your hard disk used by the selected CD-ROM performance booster. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster Using the Scenery Library


	Displays a description of the selected CD-ROM performance booster. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster Using the Scenery Library


	To change how Flight Simulator updates the CD-ROM performance booster cache, click the small arrow on the right, and then click an option. Click Manual to update your hard disk cache with new scenery files. Click Semi-Automatic to update the hard drive cache when your aircraft is above 750 feet AGL. Click Automatic to update and empty the cache as needed. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster Using the Scenery Library


	To remove scenery files in the disk cache when you leave the selected scenery area or quit Flight Simulator, click the small arrow on the right and then click Clean On Exit. To leave scenery files in the disk cache, click Do Not Clean On Exit. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster Using the Scenery Library


	Displays the path to the directory on your hard drive where the CD-ROM performance booster stores scenery for the selected performance booster. To change the directory, type a new path. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster Using the Scenery Library


	Displays the recommended size (in kilobytes) for the selected performance booster. To change the cache size, type a new value. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster Using the Scenery Library


	Type a cache size (in kilobytes) for the selected performance booster. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster Using the Scenery Library


	To make the selected performance booster active, click Cache Active. Using a CD-ROM Performance Booster Using the Scenery Library


	To close the dialog box and save your changes, click OK.


	To close the dialog box without saving your changes, click CANCEL.


	No help is available for this item.


	This dialog box displays the airport or navaid information for the area you selected. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	No help is available for this item.


	No help is available for this item.


	To display the world map so you can select a region or country, click this button. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To return to the previous screen, click this button. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To close the Airport/Facility Directory and return to Flight Simulator, click this button. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To display information about the VORs and NDBs in the area you've selected, click this button. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To display information about the airports in the area you've selected, click this button. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Select options in this dialog box to move your aircraft to a specific location anywhere on the earth. Going to an Exact Location Going Directly to an Airport


	No help is available for this item.


	To return to a location that is stored as part of a saved flight, click the Select Flight button. Choosing a Flight


	To return to a location that is stored as part of a saved flight, click the Select Flight button. Choosing a Flight


	To return to a location that is stored as part of a saved flight, click this button. Choosing a Flight


	To set your aircraft at specific location, altitude, heading, and airspeed, select options in this area. Going to an Exact Location Going Directly to an Airport


	To set your aircraft at specific longitude, type the longitude here. Type an asterisk (*) after the degrees and an apostrophe (') after the minutes. Going to an Exact Location Going Directly to an Airport


	To set your aircraft at specific altitude above mean sea level, type the altitude here. Going to an Exact Location Going Directly to an Airport


	To specify the direction in which your aircraft will be headed, type or select a heading (001–360) here. Going to an Exact Location Going Directly to an Airport


	To specify the initial airspeed for your aircraft, type or select the airspeed here. Going to an Exact Location Going Directly to an Airport


	To set the tower position (the location from which you can see you aircraft in tower view), at the same initial location as your aircraft, click this button. Going to an Exact Location Going Directly to an Airport


	To set the tower location to a specific latitude, type the latitude here. Type an asterisk (*) after the degrees and an apostrophe (') after the minutes. Going to an Exact Location Going Directly to an Airport


	To set your aircraft at specific longitude, type the longitude here. Type an asterisk (*) after the degrees and an apostrophe (') after the minutes. Going to an Exact Location Going Directly to an Airport


	To set the tower position (the location from which you can see you aircraft in tower view), at the same initial location as your aircraft, click this button. Going to an Exact Location Going Directly to an Airport


	To go to the Airport/Facility Directory to find more information about the airports and navigation aids in the Flight Simulator database, click this button. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	When you're ready to move your aircraft to the specified location, click OK.


	To return to Flight Simulator without changing your aircraft's position, click Cancel.


	To set the height of the tower above sea level (the position from which you can see your aircraft in tower view), type the altitude here. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Select options in this dialog box to move your aircraft to a specific airport. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	If you know the name of the airport you want to start from, type its name in this box. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To search for an airport by the region, country, state/province or city in which it is located, click this button. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To search for an airport by its official identifier, click this button. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To search for an airport included in scenery created for previous versions of Flight Simulator, click this button. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	If you know the name of the airport you want to start from, type its name in this box. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	This list shows all the airports that meet the current search criteria. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To narrow the list of airports to those located in a general region of the world, select a region from this list. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	Select the runway from which you want to take off from this list. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To find detailed information about an airport, click this button. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	When you're ready to move your aircraft to the selected airport, click OK.


	To return to Flight Simulator without moving your aircraft, click Cancel.


	To reset all the search criteria, click this button. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	No help is available for this item.


	Select the scenery area that contains the airport you want to start from. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To narrow the list of airports to those in a specific country, select a country from this list. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To narrow the list of airports to those in a specific city, select a city from this list. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	To narrow the list of airports to those in a specific state/province, select a state/province from this list. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	If you know the official identifier for an airport, type it in this box or select it from the list. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


	If you know the official identifier for an airport, type it in this box or select it from the list. Using the Airport/Facility Directory


Accessibility for People with Disabilities
	Accessibility for People with Disabilities Microsoft is committed to making its products and services easier for everyone to use. This help file provides information about the following features, products and services, which make Microsoft® Windows® and Microsoft® Flight Simulator 98 more accessible for people with disabilities: NOTE: The information in this section applies only to users who purchased Windows in the United States If you purchased Windows outside the United States, your Windows package contains a subsidiary information card listing Microsoft support services telephone numbers and addresses You can contact your subsidiary to find out whether the type of products and services described in this help file are available in your area. Related Topics Microsoft Services for People Who are Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing Keyboard Layouts for Single-Handed Users Microsoft Documentation in Alternative Formats Third-Party Utilities To Enhance Accessibility More Information About Products and Services for People with Disabilities


Microsoft Services for People Who Are Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing
	Microsoft Services for People Who Are Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing Through a text telephone (TT/TDD) service, Microsoft provides people who are deaf or hard-of-hearing with complete access to Microsoft product and customer services. You can contact Microsoft Sales Information Center on a text telephone by dialing (800) 892-5234 between 6:30 A.M. and 5:30 P.M. Pacific time. For technical assistance you can contact Microsoft Support Network on a text telephone at (206) 635-4948 between 6:00 A.M. and 6:00 P.M. Pacific time, Monday through Friday, excluding holidays. In Canada, dial (905) 568-9641 between 8:00 A.M. and 8:00 P.M. Eastern time, Monday through Friday, excluding holidays. Microsoft support services are subject to Microsoft prices, terms, and conditions in place at the time the service is used. Related Topics Accessibility for People with Disabilities Keyboard Layouts for Single-Handed Users Microsoft Documentation in Alternative Formats Third-Party Utilities To Enhance Accessibility More Information About Products and Services for People with Disabilities


Keyboard Layouts for Single-Handed Users
	Keyboard Layouts for Single-Handed Users Microsoft distributes Dvorak keyboard layouts that make the most frequently typed characters on a keyboard more accessible to people who have difficulty using the standard "QWERTY" layout. There are three Dvorak layouts: one for two-handed users, one for people who type with their left hand only, and one for people who type with their right hand only. The left-handed or right-handed keyboard layouts can also be used by people who type with a single finger or a wand. You do not need to purchase any special equipment in order to use these features. Microsoft Windows and Microsoft Windows NT already support the two-handed Dvorak layout, which can be useful for coping with or avoiding types of repetitive-motion injuries associated with typing. To get this layout use the Windows Control Panel; consult your on-line documentation for detailed instructions. The two layouts for people who type with one hand are distributed as Microsoft Application Note GA0650. It is also contained in file GA0650.EXE on most network services and on the Microsoft Download Service. Related Topics Accessibility for People with Disabilities Microsoft Services for People Who are Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing Microsoft Documentation in Alternative Formats Third-Party Utilities To Enhance Accessibility More Information About Products and Services for People with Disabilities


Microsoft Documentation in Alternative Formats
	Microsoft Documentation in Alternative Formats People who have difficulty reading or handling printed documentation may obtain many Microsoft publications from Recording for the Blind, Inc Recording for the Blind distributes these documents to registered eligible members of their distribution service either on audio cassettes or on floppy disks. The Recording for the Blind collection contains more than 80,000 titles, including Microsoft product documentation and books from Microsoft Press You can contact Recording for the Blind at the following address or phone numbers for information on eligibility and availability of Microsoft product documentation and books from Microsoft Press:  Recording for the Blind, Inc. 20 Roszel Road Princeton, NJ  08540 Phone: (609) 452-0606 Fax: (609) 987-8116 Related Topics Accessibility for People with Disabilities Microsoft Services for People Who are Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing Keyboard Layouts for Single-Handed Users Third-Party Utilities To Enhance Accessibility More Information About Products and Services for People with Disabilities


Third-Party Utilities to Enhance Accessibility
	Third-Party Utilities to Enhance Accessibility A wide variety of third-party hardware and software products are available to make personal computers easier to use for people with disabilities. Among the different types of products available for the Microsoft® MS-DOS®, Microsoft Windows, and Microsoft Windows NT operating systems are: • Programs that enlarge or alter the color of information on the screen for people with visual impairments. • Programs that describe information on the screen in braille or synthesized speech for people who are blind or have difficulty reading. • Hardware and software utilities that modify the behavior of the mouse and keyboard. • Programs that enable users to “type” using a mouse or their voice. • Word or phrase prediction software that allows one to type more quickly and with fewer keystrokes. • Alternate input devices, such as single switch or puff-and-sip devices, for those who cannot use a mouse or a keyboard. Related Topics Accessibility for People with Disabilities Microsoft Services for People Who are Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing Keyboard Layouts for Single-Handed Users Microsoft Documentation in Alternative Formats More Information About Products and Services for People with Disabilities


More Information About Products and Services for People with Disabilities
	More Information About Products and Services for People with Disabilities For more information on Microsoft products and services for people with disabilities, contact:  Microsoft Sales Information Center One Microsoft Way Redmond, WA 98052-6393 Voice telephone: (800) 426-9400 Text telephone: (800) 892-5234 Fax: (206) 635-6100 The Trace R&D Center at the University of Wisconsin-Madison produces a book and a compact disc that describe products that help people with disabilities use computers. The book, titled Trace ResourceBook, provides descriptions and photographs of about 2,000 products. The compact disc, titled Co-Net CD, provides a database of more than 18,000 products and other information for people with disabilities. It is issued twice a year. To obtain these directories, contact: Trace R&D Center S-151 Waisman Center 1500 Highland Avenue Madison, WI 53705–2280 Voice telephone: (608) 263–2309 Text telephone: (608) 263–5408 Fax: (608) 262-8848 For general information and recommendations on how computers can help specific people, you should consult a trained evaluator who can best match your needs with the available solutions. An assistive technology program in your area will provide referrals to programs and services that are available to you. To locate the assistive technology program nearest you, you can contact: National Information System  Center for Developmental Disabilities Benson Building University of South Carolina Columbia, SC 29208 Voice/text telephone: (803) 777-4435 Fax: (803) 777-6058 Related Topics Accessibility for People with Disabilities Microsoft Services for People Who are Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing Keyboard Layouts for Single-Handed Users Microsoft Documentation in Alternative Formats Third-Party Utilities To Enhance Accessibility


END-USER LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR MICROSOFT SOFTWARE

IMPORTANT—READ CAREFULLY: This Microsoft End-User License Agreement (“EULA”) is a legal agreement between you (either an individual or a single entity) and Microsoft Corporation for the Microsoft software product identified above, which includes computer software and may include associated media, printed materials, and “online” or electronic documentation (“SOFTWARE PRODUCT”). By installing, copying, or otherwise using the SOFTWARE PRODUCT, you agree to be bound by the terms of this EULA. If you do not agree to the terms of this EULA, do not install or use the SOFTWARE PRODUCT; you may, however, return it to your place of purchase for a full refund.

SOFTWARE PRODUCT LICENSE

The SOFTWARE PRODUCT is protected by copyright laws and international copyright treaties, as well as other intellectual property laws and treaties. The SOFTWARE PRODUCT is licensed, not sold.  NOTE:  The terms of a printed, paper EULA which may accompany the SOFTWARE PRODUCT supersede the terms of any on-screen EULA found within the SOFTWARE PRODUCT.

1.	GRANT OF LICENSE. This EULA grants you the following rights:

Applications Software. You may install and use one copy of the SOFTWARE PRODUCT, or any prior version for the same operating system, on a single computer. The primary user of the computer on which the SOFTWARE PRODUCT is installed may make a second copy for his or her exclusive use on a portable computer.

Storage/Network Use. You may also store or install a copy of the SOFTWARE PRODUCT on a storage device, such as a network server, used only to install or run the SOFTWARE PRODUCT on your other computers over an internal network; however, you must acquire and dedicate a license for each separate computer on which the SOFTWARE PRODUCT is installed or run from the storage device. A license for the SOFTWARE PRODUCT may not be shared or used concurrently on different computers.

License Pak. If you have acquired this EULA in a Microsoft License Pak, you may make the number of additional copies of the computer software portion of the SOFTWARE PRODUCT authorized on the printed copy of this EULA, and you may use each copy in the manner specified above. You are also entitled to make a corresponding number of secondary copies for portable computer use as specified above.

2.	DESCRIPTION OF OTHER RIGHTS AND LIMITATIONS.

Academic Edition Software. If the SOFTWARE PRODUCT is identified as “Academic Edition” or “AE,” you must be a “Qualified Educational User” to use the SOFTWARE PRODUCT. If you are not a Qualified Educational User, you have no rights under this EULA. To determine whether you are a Qualified Educational User, please contact the Microsoft Sales Information Center/One Microsoft Way/Redmond, WA 98052-6399 or the Microsoft subsidiary serving your country.

Not for Resale Software. If the SOFTWARE PRODUCT is labeled “Not for Resale” or “NFR,” then, notwithstanding other sections of this EULA, you may not resell, or otherwise transfer for value, the SOFTWARE PRODUCT.

Limitations on Reverse Engineering, Decompilation, and Disassembly. You may not reverse engineer, decompile, or disassemble the SOFTWARE PRODUCT, except and only to the extent that such activity is expressly permitted by applicable law notwithstanding this limitation.

Separation of Components. The SOFTWARE PRODUCT is licensed as a single product. Its component parts may not be separated for use on more than one computer.

Rental. You may not rent, lease, or lend the SOFTWARE PRODUCT.

Support Services. Microsoft may provide you with support services related to the SOFTWARE PRODUCT (“Support Services”). Use of Support Services is governed by the Microsoft policies and programs described in the user manual, in “online” documentation, and/or in other Microsoft-provided materials. Any supplemental software code provided to you as part of the Support Services shall be considered part of the SOFTWARE PRODUCT and subject to the terms and conditions of this EULA. With respect to technical information you provide to Microsoft as part of the Support Services, Microsoft may use such information for its business purposes, including for product support and development. Microsoft will not utilize such technical information in a form that personally identifies you.

Software Transfer. You may permanently transfer all of your rights under this EULA, provided you retain no copies, you transfer all of the SOFTWARE PRODUCT (including all component parts, the media and printed materials, any upgrades, this EULA, and, if applicable, the Certificate of Authenticity), and the recipient agrees to the terms of this EULA. If the SOFTWARE PRODUCT is an upgrade, any transfer must include all prior versions of the SOFTWARE PRODUCT.

Termination. Without prejudice to any other rights, Microsoft may terminate this EULA if you fail to comply with the terms and conditions of this EULA. In such event, you must destroy all copies of the SOFTWARE PRODUCT and all of its component parts.

3.	UPGRADES. If the SOFTWARE PRODUCT is labeled as an upgrade, you must be properly licensed to use a product identified by Microsoft as being eligible for the upgrade in order to use the SOFTWARE PRODUCT. A SOFTWARE PRODUCT labeled as an upgrade replaces and/or supplements the product that formed the basis for your eligibility for the upgrade. You may use the resulting upgraded product only in accordance with the terms of this EULA. If the SOFTWARE PRODUCT is an upgrade of a component of a package of software programs that you licensed as a single product, the SOFTWARE PRODUCT may be used and transferred only as part of that single product package and may not be separated for use on more than one computer.

4.	COPYRIGHT. All title and copyrights in and to the SOFTWARE PRODUCT (including but not limited to any images, photographs, animations, video, audio, music, text, and “applets” incorporated into the SOFTWARE PRODUCT), the accompanying printed materials, and any copies of the SOFTWARE PRODUCT are owned by Microsoft or its suppliers. The SOFTWARE PRODUCT is protected by copyright laws and international treaty provisions. Therefore, you must treat the SOFTWARE PRODUCT like any other copyrighted material except that you may install the SOFTWARE PRODUCT on a single computer provided you keep the original solely for backup or archival purposes. You may not copy the printed materials accompanying the SOFTWARE PRODUCT.

5.	DUAL-MEDIA SOFTWARE. You may receive the SOFTWARE PRODUCT in more than one medium. Regardless of the type or size of medium you receive, you may use only one medium that is appropriate for your single computer. You may not use or install the other medium on another computer. You may not loan, rent, lease, or otherwise transfer the other medium to another user, except as part of the permanent transfer (as provided above) of the SOFTWARE PRODUCT.

6.	U.S. GOVERNMENT RESTRICTED RIGHTS. The SOFTWARE PRODUCT and documentation are provided with RESTRICTED RIGHTS. Use, duplication, or disclosure by the Government is subject to restrictions as set forth in subparagraph (c)(1)(ii) of the Rights in Technical Data and Computer Software clause at DFARS 252.227-7013 or subparagraphs (c)(1) and (2) of the Commercial Computer Software—Restricted Rights at 48 CFR 52.227-19, as applicable. Manufacturer is Microsoft Corporation/One Microsoft Way/Redmond, WA 98052-6399.

MISCELLANEOUS

If you acquired this product in the United States, this EULA is governed by the laws of the State of Washington.

If you acquired this product in Canada, this EULA is governed by the laws of the Province of Ontario, Canada. Each of the parties hereto irrevocably attorns to the jurisdiction of the courts of the Province of Ontario and further agrees to commence any litigation which may arise hereunder in the courts located in the Judicial District of York, Province of Ontario.

If you acquired this product outside the United States or Canada, please refer to the warranty booklet accompanying your product for the limited warranties and special provisions pertaining to your particular jurisdiction.

If this product was acquired outside the United States, then local law may apply.

Should you have any questions concerning this EULA, or if you desire to contact Microsoft for any reason, please contact the Microsoft subsidiary serving your country, or write: Microsoft Sales Information Center/One Microsoft Way/Redmond, WA 98052-6399.

LIMITED WARRANTY

LIMITED WARRANTY. Microsoft warrants that (a) the SOFTWARE PRODUCT will perform substantially in accordance with the accompanying written materials for a period of ninety (90) days from the date of receipt, and (b) any Support Services provided by Microsoft shall be substantially as described in applicable written materials provided to you by Microsoft, and Microsoft support engineers will make commercially reasonable efforts to solve any problem issues. Some states and jurisdictions do not allow limitations on duration of an implied warranty, so the above limitation may not apply to you. To the extent allowed by applicable law, implied warranties on the SOFTWARE PRODUCT, if any, are limited to ninety (90) days.

CUSTOMER REMEDIES. Microsoft’s and its suppliers’ entire liability and your exclusive remedy shall be, at Microsoft’s option, either (a) return of the price paid, if any, or (b) repair or replacement of the SOFTWARE PRODUCT that does not meet Microsoft’s Limited Warranty and which is returned to Microsoft with a copy of your receipt. This Limited Warranty is void if failure of the SOFTWARE PRODUCT has resulted from accident, abuse, or misapplication. Any replacement SOFTWARE PRODUCT will be warranted for the remainder of the original warranty period or thirty (30) days, whichever is longer. Outside the United States, neither these remedies nor any product support services offered by Microsoft are available without proof of purchase from an authorized international source.

NO OTHER WARRANTIES. TO THE MAXIMUM EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW, MICROSOFT AND ITS SUPPLIERS DISCLAIM ALL OTHER WARRANTIES AND CONDITIONS, EITHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, TITLE, AND NON-INFRINGEMENT, WITH REGARD TO THE SOFTWARE PRODUCT, AND THE PROVISION OF OR FAILURE TO PROVIDE SUPPORT SERVICES. THIS LIMITED WARRANTY GIVES YOU SPECIFIC LEGAL RIGHTS. YOU MAY HAVE OTHERS, WHICH VARY FROM STATE/JURISDICTION TO STATE/JURISDICTION.

LIMITATION OF LIABILITY. TO THE MAXIMUM EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW, IN NO EVENT SHALL MICROSOFT OR ITS SUPPLIERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES WHATSOEVER (INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, DAMAGES FOR LOSS OF BUSINESS PROFITS, BUSINESS INTERRUPTION, LOSS OF BUSINESS INFORMATION, OR ANY OTHER PECUNIARY LOSS) ARISING OUT OF THE USE OF OR INABILITY TO USE THE SOFTWARE PRODUCT OR THE PROVISION OF OR FAILURE TO PROVIDE SUPPORT SERVICES, EVEN IF MICROSOFT HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. IN ANY CASE, MICROSOFT’S ENTIRE LIABILITY UNDER ANY PROVISION OF THIS EULA SHALL BE LIMITED TO THE GREATER OF THE AMOUNT ACTUALLY PAID BY YOU FOR THE SOFTWARE PRODUCT OR U.S.$5.00; PROVIDED, HOWEVER, IF YOU HAVE ENTERED INTO A MICROSOFT SUPPORT SERVICES AGREEMENT, MICROSOFT’S ENTIRE LIABILITY REGARDING SUPPORT SERVICES SHALL BE GOVERNED BY THE TERMS OF THAT AGREEMENT. BECAUSE SOME STATES AND JURISDICTIONS DO NOT ALLOW THE EXCLUSION OR LIMITATION OF LIABILITY, THE ABOVE LIMITATION MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU.

Si vous avez acquis votre produit Microsoft au CANADA, la garantie limitée suivante vous concerne :

GARANTIE LIMITÉE

GARANTIE LIMITÉE — Microsoft garantit que (a) la performance du LOGICIEL sera substantiellement en conformité avec la documentation qui accompagne le LOGICIEL, pour une période de quatre-vingt-dix (90) jours à compter de la date de réception ; et (b) tout support technique fourni par Microsoft sera substantiellement en conformité avec toute documentation afférente fournie par Microsoft et que les membres du support technique de Microsoft feront des efforts raisonnables pour résoudre toute difficulté technique découlant de l’utilisation du LOGICIEL. Certaines juridictions ne permettent pas de limiter dans le temps l’application de la présente garantie. Aussi, la limite stipulée ci-haut pourrait ne pas s’appliquer dans votre cas. Dans la mesure permise par la loi, toute garantie implicite portant sur le LOGICIEL, le cas échéant, est limitée à une période de quatre-vingt-dix (90) jours.

RECOURS DU CLIENT — La seule obligation de Microsoft et de ses fournisseurs et votre recours exclusif seront, au choix de Microsoft, soit (a) le remboursement du prix payé, si applicable, ou (b) la réparation ou le remplacement du LOGICIEL qui n’est pas conforme à la Garantie Limitée de Microsoft et qui est retourné à Microsoft avec une copie de votre reçu. Cette Garantie Limitée est nulle si le défaut du LOGICIEL est causé par un accident, un traitement abusif ou une mauvaise application. Tout LOGICIEL de remplacement sera garanti pour le reste de la période de garantie initiale ou pour trente (30) jours, selon la plus longue de ces périodes. A l’extérieur des Etats-Unis, aucun de ces recours non plus que le support technique offert par Microsoft ne sont disponibles sans une preuve d’achat provenant d’une source authorisée.

AUCUNE AUTRE GARANTIE — DANS LA MESURE PRÉVUE PAR LA LOI, MICROSOFT ET SES FOURNISSEURS EXCLUENT TOUTE AUTRE GARANTIE OU CONDITION, EXPRESSE OU IMPLICITE, Y COMPRIS MAIS NE SE LIMITANT PAS AUX GARANTIES OU CONDITIONS IMPLICITES DU CARACTÈRE ADÉQUAT POUR LA COMMERCIALISATION OU UN USAGE PARTICULIER EN CE QUI CONCERNE LE LOGICIEL OU CONCERNANT LE TITRE , L’ABSENCE DE CONTREFAÇON DUDIT LOGICIEL, ET TOUTE DOCUMENTATION ÉCRITE QUI L’ACCOMPAGNE, AINSI QUE POUR TOUTE DISPOSITION CONCERNANT LE SUPORT TECHNIQUE OU LA FAÇON DONT CELUI-CI A ÉTÉ RENDU. CETTE GARANTIE LIMITÉE VOUS ACCORDE DES DROITS JURIDIQUES SPÉCIFIQUES.

PAS DE RESPONSABILITÉ POUR LES DOMMAGES INDIRECTS — MICROSOFT OU SES FOURNISSEURS NE SERONT PAS RESPONSABLES EN AUCUNE CIRCONSTANCE POUR TOUT DOMMAGE SPÉCIAL, INCIDENT, INDIRECT, OU CONSÉQUENT QUEL QU’IL SOIT (Y COMPRIS, SANS LIMITATION, LES DOMMAGES ENTRAINÉS PAR LA PERTE DE BÉNÉFICES, L’INTERRUPTION DES ACTIVITÉS, LA PERTE D’INFORMATION OU TOUTE AUTRE PERTE PÉCUNIAIRE) DÉCOULANT DE L’UTILISATION OU DE L’IMPOSSIBILITÉ D’UTILISATION DE CE LOGICIEL AINSI QUE POUR TOUTE DISPOSITION CONCERNANT LE SUPORT TECHNIQUE OU LA FAÇON DONT CELUI-CI A ÉTÉ RENDU ET CE, MÊME SI MICROSOFT A ÉTÉ AVISÉE DE LA POSSIBILITÉ DE TELS DOMMAGES. LA RESPONSABILITÉ DE MICROSOFT EN VERTU DE TOUTE DISPOSITION DE CETTE CONVENTION NE POURRA EN AUCUN TEMPS EXCÉDER LE PLUS ÉLEVÉ ENTRE I) LE MONTANT EFFECTIVEMENT PAYÉ PAR VOUS POUR LE LOGICIEL OU II) US$5.00. ADVENANT QUE VOUS AYEZ CONTRACTÉ PAR ENTENTE DISTINCTE AVEC MICROSOFT POUR UN SUPPORT TECHNIQUE ÉTENDU, VOUS SEREZ LIÉ PAR LES TERMES D’ UNE TELLE ENTENTE.

La présente Convention est régie par les lois de la province d’Ontario, Canada. Chacune des parties à la présente reconnaît irrévocablement la compétence des tribunaux de la province d’Ontario et consent à instituer tout litige qui pourrait découler de la présente auprès des tribunaux situés dans le district judiciaire de York, province d’Ontario.

Au cas où vous auriez des questions concernant cette licence ou que vous désiriez vous mettre en rapport avec Microsoft pour quelque raison que ce soit, veuillez contacter la succursale Microsoft desservant votre pays, dont l’adresse est fournie dans ce produit, ou écrivez à : Microsoft Sales Information Center, One Microsoft Way, Redmond, Washington 98052-6399.